IB Global Politics HL -- 2022-24

Positive Peace

Attitudes, institutions, and structures that create and sustain peaceful societies

Negative Peace

The absence of violence, war or fear of violence.

War by Proxy

Wars being fought using third-parties

Realism

The belief that world politics is a struggle between states who act out of pure self-interest.

They believe that the only way to peace is through a balanced distribution of power globally across states.

Main focuses: military power, defence, economy

Classical realism

A subtype of realism that believes absolute power is the ultimate goal which states work towards.

Structural realism

A subtype of realism which sees power as a means to an end, the end being survival and outlasting other states.

2 further subtypes:
(1) Offensive: States pursue as much power as possible, they pursue hegemony (dominance)
(2) Defensive: Too much power will be punished, the pursuit of hegemony is selfish and ultimately self-destructive.

Liberalism

A theoretical perspective that emphasises interdependence and cooperation between nations.

Main focuses: soft power, international law, globalisation

Pillars of Positive Peace

- well-functioning government (stability, economic/social growth + development)
- equitable distribution of resources
- free flow of information
- good relations with neighbours
- high levels of human capital
- acceptance of the rights of others

Conflict

The dynamic process of actual or perceived opposition (over positions, interests or values) between individuals and/or groups.
Galtung: 'actors in pursuit of incompatible goals'

Non-violent conflict

When groups disagree in peaceful ways
- Legit structures are in place for dialogue + communication
- Parties are dependent on each other
- Violence is against the best interests of both parties

Violent conflict

Direct violence i.e war
- Lack of trust on both sides
- No means to peaceful discussion, negotiation

Power

The ability to effect change and, rather than being viewed as a unitary or independent force, is as an aspect of relations among people functioning within a social organization.

Hard power

Military force, direct aggression, economic sanctions
(Its use will affect one's ability to use soft power)

Smart power

Diplomacy, aid, persuasion, negotiation

Soft power

Outreach, cultural ties, political values, foreign policies
(More attractive to liberal governments, values trust + credibility, easy to break)

Violence

When physical, mental or other types of harm are inflicted by an individual/group unto another

Direct violence

Direct, physical, aggressive violence
i.e killing, raping, torture

Straightforward, possible to investigate and seek justice, most visible

Structural violence

harm inflicted via institutions by government or authority figures
i.e denial of basic human needs, unequal access to opportunities/resources

Conscious choice, denial of basic human rights, widespread but unchallenged, hard to investigate + measure

Cultural violence

violent mindsets/stereotypes present within the beliefs and values of a community
i.e FGM

Embedded in all levels of society, prominent social norms that 'justify' violence, harder to eliminate, government- or society-driven

Misconceptions of conflict

Conflict is caused by a single factor
Conflict parties are (rational) military parties
Conflict is always visible
Conflict is always undesirable
Conflict always needs to be settled
Conflict always requires third-party intervention

Interstate conflict

Conflict between state actors, not necessarily within one's borders i.e WWI, WWII

Intrastate conflict

Conflict between a state and non-state actor within borders i.e civil wars

Extrastate conflict

Conflict between a state and non-state actor outside of borders i.e Afghanistan (NATO v Taliban)

Substate conflict

Conflict between non-state actors not within borders

Types of conflict

TERRITORIAL CLAIMS
IDEOLOGICAL CONFLICT
IDENTITY CONFLICT
INTEREST-BASED

Just War Theory

A doctrine that provides criteria to judge the justifiability of war
(1) RIGHT TO GO TO WAR (JUS AD BELLUM) → purpose of going to war
(2) RIGHT CONDUCT IN WAR (JUS IN BELLO) → moral conduct within war
(3) ENDING WA WAR (JUS POST BELLUM) → post-war settlement & reconstruction

Types of power

MILITARY
Hard power → force, aggression, fear, harm
Soft power → humanitarian aid, rescue efforts
Other factors → GDP, expenditure, army size, nuclear weapons
ECONOMIC
Hard power → economic sanctions, military funding
Soft power → investment, trade
SOCIO-CULTURAL
Soft power → popular culture, foreign/domestic policies, globalisation, public perception
CYBER
Hard power → State secrets, cybersecurity, modern challenge to state power

Ingroup/outgroup theory

(Sears, Huddy & Jervis)
Individuals amplify similarities with ingrou pand differences with outgroup
This phenomenon happens naturally, but has been enhanced with social media
Hostility → discrimination, dehumanisation, conflict, cultural violence

Greed v Grievance

Greed → desire for more (status, power, wealth)
Grievance → rebellion over identity (religion, ethnicity)
Collier-Hoeffler Model (2005): Factors → Availability of finance / Cost of rebellion / Military advantage
(Brown, 1996): Factors → (1) Structural (ethnic groupings, weak states) (2) Economic / social (3) Political factors (4) Cultural, perceptual factors (discrimination, historical context)

Territorial conflict

conflict over possession of natural resources or caused by nationalism
often seen in the aftermath of nationalism
(1) Border disputes (2) Occupied territory

Interest conflict

(Perceived) competitive interests
→ weapons, discrimination, corporate v environmental

Identity conflict

Animosity between groups on grounds of religion, race, gender, etc.
Key variables → different groups, degree of homogeneity (not diverse places) / heterogeneity (diverse places)
(Lipset & Rokkan) state 4 possible causes:
(1) Workers v Owners
(2) Geographic centre v periphery sub-gorups
(3) Urban v rural population
(4) Church v state

Cleavage

Historically determined social or cultural divide

Sovereignty

A state's ability to rule themselves, when an authority has supreme control over what happens within one's borders

Nation

Sovereign acting with the consent of the people
Based on people, culture, history, territory, national identity

State

Sovereignty defined by lines of a map/border
Government and institutions

Nation-state

Where nation and state represent the same thing

Sovereign Nation State

SOVERIEGN NATION STATE
(defined by the 1933 Montevideo Convention)
(1) Permanent population
→ affected by refugees, migration, insurgency
(2) Defined territory & borders
→ affected by oceans, islands, geographical changes
(3) Effective government
→ affected by effectiveness, accountability, inclusiveness
(4) Capacity and legtiimacy to enter relations with other states
→ affected by religion, national history, societal/cultural differences, economy/trade

Internal sovereignty

States governing themselves independently
States having full responsibility and power within one's borders

External sovereignty

How states interact with and respect other states and IGOs

Authoritarianism

Classified by:
Rejection of political plurality
Strong, central power
Reduction in Rule of Law
Reduction in Seperation of Law
No, limited or significantly flawed democratic voting
less civil liberties, more control over media (intimidation, suppression, assassination)

Types of third-party involvement

6 types (Fisher & Keashly, 2011)
(1) Conciliation → 3rd-party provides communication link to identify issue, encouraging direct intervention/negotiation
(2) Consultation → 3rd-party works to problem-solve
(3) Pure mediation → 3rd-party facilitates negotiation (persuasion, reasoning, control of information, suggestion)
(4) Power mediation → Facilitate agreements through use of threat, leverage or coercion, rewards/consequence
(5) Arbitration → 3rd-party considers merits of both parties and imposes what they perceive as 'fair settlement'
(6) Peacekeeping → Monitoring of ceasefire or other agreements, providing military personnel/humanitarian aid/etc.

Arms embargoes

Restriction or sanction on arms

USE: to show disapproval of certain actions, maintain neutrality by not escalating conflict
ENFORCEMENT: control on transport/trade, restrictions on licensing
EFFECTIVENESS: can be restricted completely or selectively, may worsen conflict if one party gains upper hand

Financial freeze

Restrictive measures or sanctions against entities so that funds are not directly accessible

ENFORCEMENT: Monitored by special committees, blocking of trade routes, interpol intervention
EFFECTIVENESS: Can block access to funds required within conflict party

Trade limitations

Restrictions on trade of goods/services

USE: coercion, punitive action, persuasion, show of disapproval, political message
ENFORCEMENT: UN or other IGO resolutions, blocking of trade
EFFECTIVENESS: could affect citizens

Responsibility-to-protect (R2P)

Commitment made by states to UN (2005)
States forego the right to 'full sovereignty' should they fail to protect rights from genocide, ethnic cleansing, etc.

Advantages of R2P

Moral → creates moral obligation, respects human rights
Legal → justification of 3rd party intervention

Disadvantages of R2P

Can be abused
May be misinterpreted
Legal basis is lacking

Traditional legitimacy

Legitimacy derived from historically-accepted, traditional system

Charismatic legitimacy

Legitimacy derive from charisma, popularity and pscyhologically-dominating leader
Generally reliant and centered around leader, weak politically and in administrative instutions

Rational-legal legitimacy

Public trust in government to act with respect to public interest and societal laws

Peacekeeping

Negative peace → allows for further negotiation, discussion
Aim: create space for negotiotion, discsusion over violence
Methods: ceasefires, treaties, armistices
At this stage, the original cause is not yet resolved
Organs of UN for peacekeeping → Sec-Gen, UNSC, GA

Peacemaking

May require 3rd party involvement
Negotiation stage for truce
Aim: prevent escalation, sustain negative peace to create positive peace
Methods: mediators, task forces

Ideal mediator

impartial, has more influence relative to conflict parties, focus on underlying needs, has incentive to reach an agreement, creative approaches

Peacebuilding

Building of long-term, sustainable, positive peace
Aim: resolve injustice in nonviolent ways
Methods
- Conflict management
- Disarmamament
- Demobilisation
- Reintegration
- Preventing visible extremism

Truth and Reconciliation Commissions (TRCs)

Expose + investigate crimes of those involved in conflict
Promotes forgiveness and understanding over punishment and recrimination
Restorative rather than retributive
Successful TRCs: South Africa, Sierra Leone
Success came from reliance on religion, strong belief in forgiveness, total rehaul of government, conscious rebuilding

Social movements

An organised effort by a large group of people to achieve a goal, typically social or political
A collective group of people bonded by a socio-political issue against another group of people

Causes of social movements

Political; changes in government (elections, agenda), new legislations, landmark cases
Economic; recessions, media
Social; case-by-case
Psychological; influence by foreign groups/entities

Stages of social movmenets

emerge → coalesce → bureaucratise → success/failure/repression/mainstream/cooptation → decline

Alternative social movements

Movements advocating for self-improvement of individuals i.e Alcoholics Anonymous, MADD, Planned Parenthood

Redemptive social movements

Movements advocating for total change of individuals i.e Civil Rights

Reformative social movements

Movements advocating for changes to specific aspects of society i.e Buy Nothing Day, environmentalism

Revolutionary social movements

Movements calling for complete overhaul of society

Mass Society Theory

With industrialization and subsequent social changes, people have become isolated and alienated (Kornhauser)

Relative Deprivation Theory

People satisfied in their current lives are less inclined to participate in social movements

Resource Mobilisation Theory

Success of social movements rely on capacity and competency in utilising resources

Rational Choice Theory

assumes that all individuals have preferences and will pursue their best interests

Informal forums

Platform for world leaders to meet and discuss matters of global importance outside of institutions i.e G7, G20, BRICs

Global Governance

A coordinated effort of state, regional, int'l actors to manage global affairs. The process comprises of discussion and consensus-forming between actors in order to produce guidelines that encompass all involved and better the situation