AP Psych Unit 0-2

Hindsight bias

happens when, after an event has

occurred, we believe we predicted it beforehand.

Confirmation Bias

Evolutionary Perspective

Focuses on aspects like natural selection and survival mechanisms. Behaviors are shaped to enhance survival and reproduction.

Biological Perspective

Emphasizes the influence of biology on behavior, including genetics, brain structure, and neurotransmitter activity.

Psychodynamic Perspective

A psychological approach that emphasizes unconscious processes and early childhood experiences in shaping behavior and personality.

Behavioral Perspective

A psychological approach that studies observable behavior and the effects of learning through interactions with the environment, focusing on conditioning and reinforcement.

Humanistic Perspective

A psychological approach that emphasizes the individual's inherent drive towards self-actualization and personal growth, focusing on concepts like free will and personal responsibility.

Cognition Perspective

A psychological approach that focuses on mental processes such as perception, memory, problem-solving, and decision-making, highlighting how individuals acquire, process, and store information.

Socio-cultural Perspective

A psychological approach that examines how cultural and social influences shape behavior, attitudes, and mental processes, emphasizing the role of context in understanding psychological phenomena.

Case Study

A case study involves an in-depth
investigation of a single individual or
group.

Naturalistic Observation

Naturalistic observation involves observing subjects in their natural environment without intervention.

Meta-Analysis

statistically combines the results of multiple studies on the same topic.

Social Desirability Bias

occurs when respondents give answers they think are socially acceptable rather than truthful.

Self-Report Bias

occurs when participants provide inaccurate information about
themselves.

Experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more variables to observe the effect on a dependent variable.

Correlational research

a research method that examines the relationship between two variables to determine if they are associated or correlated.

Multiple Sclerosis

deterioration of the myelin sheath, leading to slower neural transmission and impaired motor function

Myasthenia Gravis

antibodies block acetylcholine receptors, affecting muscle control and strength

Adrenaline

Produced by the adrenal glands; flight-or-fight response. Oversupply linked to panic disorders and anxiety

Leptin

Produced in hypothalamus; regulates food intake and controls energy expend (Decreases appetite). Decreased levels stimulate hunger, undersupply is linked to obesity

Ghrelin

Produced by stomach; levels increase to signal hunger (increases appetite). Low levels linked to obesity; high levels linked with anorexia nervosa

Oxytocin

Produced in hypothalamus but released by pituitary gland; tend-and-befriend response and pair-bond formation. Undersupply linked to tremors, seizures, and insomnia

Agonists substances

Increase neurotransmitter activity

Antagonists substances

Block or inhibit neurotransmitters

Activation-Synthesis Theory

suggests that dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity during sleep.

Information-Processing Theory

play a role in memory consolidation and learning, helping us process information from the day.

Freudian Perspective

Dreams reveal hidden desires, fears, and unresolved conflicts.

Narcolepsy

A chronic neurological disorder that causes sudden, uncontrollable sleep
episodes.

Sleep Apnea

Disorder causing breathing to repeatedly stop and start during sleep.

Absolute Threshold

The minimum amount of stimulation required for a stimulus to be detected by a sensory system.

Weber’s Law

The perceived difference in a stimulus must be proportional to the original intensity of the stimulus

Retina

The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye containing photoreceptor cells that convert light into neural signals.

Rods

Photoreceptor cells in the retina responsible for vision in low light conditions and detecting motion.

Cones

Photoreceptor cells in the retina responsible for color vision and detail in bright light.

Fovea

Central area of the retina responsible for sharp central vision.

Opponent-Process Theory

A theory proposing that color vision is based on pairs of opposing color processes

Bottom-Up Processing

brain makes sense of
information by starting with the small details and then building up to a complete perception.

Top-Down Processing

involves interpreting
sensory information based on the larger context, prior knowledge, and
expectations.

Cocktail Party Effect

our ability to focus on a
single conversation in a noisy environment, like a
crowded party, while tuning out other stimuli.

Inattentional Blindness

occurs when an individual fails to notice an unexpected stimulus in their visual field when their attention is focused on something else.

Schemas

mental frameworks that help us organize and interpret
information in the world around us.

Perceptual Sets

tendency to perceive or notice some aspects of
the available sensory data and ignore others.

Gestalt Psychology

perceive whole objects or figures
(gestalts) rather than just a collection
of parts.

Interposition

object overlaps another, leading us to
perceive the overlapping object as closer.

Assimilation “Adding to Existing"

The cognitive process of fitting new information into existing schemas.

Convergent Thinking

ognitive process that focuses on finding a single, correct solution to a problem by applying logical steps.

Divergent Thinking

A thought process or method used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions.

Gambler’s Fallacy

cognitive bias that occurs when individuals believe that the outcome of a random event is influenced by previous outcomes, even though each event is independent and has no bearing on future results.

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

cognitive bias where individuals continue investing time, money, or effort into a project or decision because they have already invested so much, even if the returns are poor or the endeavor no longer aligns with their goals.

Growth Mindset

the belief that abilities and intelligence can be developed through dedication and effort.

Fixed Mindset

the belief that intelligence is predetermined and cannot be significantly changed.

Flynn Effect

the trend of average IQ scores increasing over generations. It suggests a rise in general intelligence due to environmental and cultural factors

Stereotype Threat

the phenomenon where individuals underperform in situations where they feel at risk of confirming negative stereotypes about their social group.

Stereotype Lift

the opposite of stereotype threat, occurs when individuals from stereotypically advantaged groups perform better on tests due to the positive expectations associated with their group. 

Hippocampus:

Creation and storage of explicit long-term memories.

Amygdala:

Links emotions (e.g., fear, anger) to memories for stronger recall.

Prefrontal Cortex

Manages working memory for planning and decision-making.

Cerebellum:

Coordinates motor memory

Basal Ganglia:

stores automatic motor behaviors

Temporal Lobes

Houses memory for language and face/object recognition

Iconic Memory

is a type of sensory memory that briefly
holds visual images.

Echoic Memory

is a type of sensory memory that retains auditory information.

Longitudinal Research

Studying the same individuals over time

Erikson Psychosocial development

8 Stages spanning from infancy to late adulthood.

Each stage presents a crisis or challenge

Trust vs. Mistrust

Can I trust others?

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Can I do things on my own?

Initiative vs. Guilt

Can I take initiative and make
decisions?

Industry vs. Inferiority

Can I succeed and be competent?

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Who am I?

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Can I form close relationships?

Generativity vs. Stagnation

How can I contribute to the world?

Integrity vs. Despair

Have I lived a meaningful life?

Sensorimotor Stage

the first of Piaget's stages of cognitive development (birth to age 2) when infants learn about the world through sensory experiences and motor actions. 

Preoperational Stage

cognitive development (ages 2 to 7), where children develop language, symbolic thinking, and imagination but struggle with logical reasoning and understanding others' perspectives.

Animism

a belief in early childhood, common during Piaget's preoperational stage, where children attribute lifelike qualities, like feelings and intentions, to inanimate objects.

Theory of Mind

the ability to understand that others have thoughts, feelings, and perspectives different from one's own, typically developing around age 4 to 5. 

Concrete Operational Stage

piaget's third stage of cognitive development (ages 7 to 11), where children develop logical thinking about concrete objects and understand concepts like conservation and reversibility. 

Formal Operational Stage

Piaget's final stage of cognitive development (beginning at age 12), where individuals develop the ability to think abstractly, solve hypothetical problems, and use deductive reasoning.

Scaffolding

teaching method where a knowledgeable person provides tailored support to help a learner achieve new skills, gradually reducing assistance as the learner becomes more proficient.

Zone of Proximal Development

the range between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance, emphasizing the importance of social interaction in learning.

Crystallized Intelligence

refers to the knowledge and skills accumulated over time through education and experience, improving with age and useful for problem-solving based on facts and prior learning.

Ecological Systems Theory

a child's development is influenced by
multiple layers of environmental systems.

Chronosystem

Dimension of time and its influence on development

Macrosystem

Broad cultural, social, and ideological influences

Exosystem

Indirect influences on child development

Mesosystem

Connections between immediate environments

Microsystem

Immediate surroundings and direct interactions

Identity Diffusion

No exploration or commitment

Identity Foreclosure

Commitment without exploration

Identity Moratorium

Exploration without commitment

Identity Achievement

Exploration and commitment

Relative Deprivation

A feeling of dissatisfaction or
injustice experienced when
individuals compare themselves to
others and perceive that they are
worse off.

Upward Social Comparison

Comparing oneself to others who are perceived to be better off or
more skilled, which can motivate self-improvement but may also
decrease self-esteem.

Downward Social Comparison

Comparing oneself to others who are perceived to be worse off or
less skilled, which can boost self-esteem but may also foster
complacency.

Informational Social Influence

The influence to accept information from
others as evidence about reality, often
occurring in situations where the correct
action or belief is uncertain.

Social Facilitation

The tendency for people to perform differently when in the presence
of others, typically showing improved performance on simple or
well-practiced tasks and worse performance on complex or new
tasks.

Group Polarization

When people in a group talk about an idea, they often end up
agreeing even more strongly with each other, making their group
opinion more extreme.

Groupthink

The desire for harmony or conformity in a group leads to irrational or dysfunctional decision-making outcomes. Members suppress dissenting opinions, leading to a loss of individual creativity and responsibility.

Social Loafing

The tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a
group than when working alone.

Deindividuation

A psychological state where individuals
lose their self-awareness and sense of
individuality in group settings, often
leading to impulsive and deviant behavior.