Fundamentals, History, and Research Methods of Psychology

Vocabulary flashcards covering the origins, major perspectives, research methods, and specialized branches of psychology derived from comprehensive study notes.

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes, derived from 'Psych' meaning soul and 'Ology' meaning scientific study of.

Introspection

A close examination of one's own conscious experience, involving objectively examining and measuring one's thoughts and mental activities.

Structuralism

An early school of psychology brought to America by Edward Titchener that attempted to understand the structure of the mind by breaking down mental experiences into individual emotions and sensations.

Functionalism

A school of thought led by William James focused on understanding the purpose of consciousness and how the mind allows people to adapt, live, work, and play in the real world.

Evolutionary Psychology

A branch and perspective of psychology that uses evolutionary forces such as natural selection to explain mental processes and behaviors as products of adaptation.

Freudian Psychology

A perspective created by Sigmund Freud that focuses on the role of the unconscious mind and repressed childhood experiences in shaping behavior and personality.

Psychoanalysis

A theory and form of therapy based on the work of Sigmund Freud that uses techniques like talk therapy and dream analysis to resolve unconscious conflicts.

Insight Therapy

A therapeutic approach proposed by Freud suggesting that repressed, threatening urges in the unconscious mind create nervous disorders when attempting to surface.

Gestalt Psychology

A school of psychology started by Max Wertheimer focusing on sensation and perception, based on the principle that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

Behaviorism

A perspective proposed by John B. Watson asserting that psychology must focus exclusively on directly observable and measurable behavior.

Humanistic Perspective

An approach championed by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow proposing that human nature is generally positive and that people possess free will to pursue self-actualization.

Self-Actualization

The process of achieving one's full potential or actual self within the humanistic perspective.

Cognitive Perspective

A psychological approach associated with George Miller that examines the mental processes directing behavior, including memory, intelligence, thought processes, problem-solving, learning, and language.

Biological Perspective

An approach that uses knowledge about underlying physiology, including genes, hormones, and brain activity, to explain behavior and mental processes.

Sociocultural Perspective

A perspective associated with Lev Vygotsky emphasizing how social interactions and cultural context influence behavior and cognitive development.

Biopsychosocial Perspective

An integrative approach that explains human behavior and mental processes through the complex interplay of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors.

Wilhelm Wundt

The 'Father of Psychology' who established the first formal psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879 to bring scientific objectivity through objective introspection.

Edward Titchener

A student of Wilhelm Wundt who brought structuralism to America and expanded it to break down all experiences into basic emotions and sensations.

William James

A prominent American scholar who developed functionalism, adopted concepts from Darwinism, authored Principles of Psychology, and introduced the idea of a stream of thought.

Max Wertheimer

A psychologist who pioneered Gestalt psychology through his research on sensation and perception.

John B. Watson

The founder of behaviorism who demonstrated that emotional reactions like phobias could be conditioned in humans through the Little Albert study.

Four Goals of Psychology

The main aims of psychological science: Description (What is happening?), Explanation (Why is it happening?), Prediction (When will it happen again?), and Control (How can it be changed?).

Critical Thinking

Disciplined, rational, and clear thinking that involves evaluating claims, weighing evidence, asking questions, maintaining skepticism, and remaining open-minded.

Basic Research

Scientific inquiry focused on gathering knowledge for the sake of knowledge and testing or refining existing theories.

Applied Research

Scientific inquiry focused on addressing real-world problems and implementing direct behavior changes.

Naturalistic Observation

A descriptive research method involving watching subjects in their natural environments without artificial manipulation or control.

Laboratory Observation

A descriptive research method involving watching subjects in a controlled, artificial setting.

Observer Effect

The tendency of people or animals to act unnaturally when they are aware that they are being observed.

Observer Bias

The tendency of researchers to see what they expect or hope to see during an observational study.

Case Study

A descriptive research method involving a detailed, in-depth investigation of a single subject.

Survey

A descriptive method in which standardized questions are administered to a sample group to gather self-reported data.

Correlation

A statistical measure that describes the direction and strength of a relationship between two variables.

Correlation Coefficient ($r$)

A numerical value ranging from $-1.00$ to $+1.00$ that quantifies the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables.

Positive Correlation

A relationship between two variables in which both variables move in the same direction, either increasing together or decreasing together.

Negative Correlation

A relationship between two variables in which the variables move in opposite directions, as one increases while the other decreases.

Experiment

A research method involving the deliberate manipulation of an independent variable to measure its effect on a dependent variable and establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Operationalization

The precise, specific definition of a variable that allows it to be directly and objectively measured within an experiment.

Independent Variable

The experimental factor that is intentionally changed or manipulated by the experimenter to test its effects.

Dependent Variable

The variable in an experiment that is measured to determine the response or outcome caused by manipulations of the independent variable.

Experimental Group

The group of participants in an experiment who are exposed to the independent variable being studied.

Control Group

The group of participants in an experiment who do not receive the independent variable and serve as a baseline for comparison.

Confounding Variables

Uncontrolled extraneous variables that relate to both the independent and dependent variables, potentially distorting experimental results.

Random Assignment

The process of appointing subjects to control or experimental groups by chance, ensuring every participant has an equal likelihood of being placed in either group.

Population

The complete group of individuals that a researcher is interested in studying.

Sample

A selected subset of a population chosen to participate in a research study.

Random Sample

A sample selected through a procedure that ensures every member of the target population has an equal chance of inclusion.

Representative Sample

A subgroup of a population whose essential characteristics closely match those of the broader population of interest.

Placebo Effect

A phenomenon in which participant expectations or beliefs alter their actual behavior or experimental responses.

Experimenter Effect

The tendency for a researcher's expectations to unintentionally influence the outcomes of a study.

Single-Blind Study

An experimental design in which subjects do not know whether they belong to the experimental group or the control group.

Double-Blind Study

An experimental procedure in which neither the participants nor the experimenters know who belongs to the experimental or control group.

Developmental Psychology

A branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, moral, and social changes across the human lifespan.

Personality Psychology

A branch of psychology focused on identifying, measuring, and understanding relatively permanent patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make each individual unique.

Social Psychology

A branch of psychology that investigates how individuals interact with, relate to, and influence one another.

Industrial & Organizational Psychology

A field that applies psychological concepts and theories to workplace environments, management, hiring decisions, and employee productivity.

Health Psychology

A subfield exploring how biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors influence physical health, illness prevention, and healthcare outcomes.

Sport & Exercise Psychology

A discipline examining the psychological factors influencing physical performance, motivation, performance anxiety, and wellbeing in sports and demanding environments.

Clinical Psychology

A branch of psychology devoted to the assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of psychological disorders and problematic behavior patterns.

Forensic Psychology

A specialized area applying psychological principles, assessments, and testimony within legal and criminal justice settings.