AP psych unit 4 and 5

explanatory style

A person’s habitual way of explaining events; can be optimistic or pessimistic.

external locus of control

Belief that outcomes are controlled by external forces such as fate or luck.

fundamental attribution error

The tendency to overemphasize personal traits and underestimate situational factors when judging others.

internal locus of control

Belief that outcomes are controlled by one’s own efforts or actions.

lateral social comparison

Comparing oneself to others of similar status.

mere exposure effect

The phenomenon where repeated exposure to something increases liking for it.

optimistic explanatory style

Interpreting negative events as temporary and external.

pessimistic explanatory style

Interpreting negative events as permanent and due to internal flaws.

relative deprivation

The belief that you’re worse off than people you compare yourself to.

self-fulfilling prophecy

When a belief causes behaviors that make the belief come true.

self-serving bias

The tendency to attribute success to oneself and failures to external causes.

situational attribution

Attributing behavior to the environment or external context.

social comparison

Evaluating oneself by comparison with others.

upward social comparison

Comparing oneself to those who are better off to motivate improvement.

4.2 Attitude Formation & Change

Belief perseverance

Clinging to beliefs even when they’ve been discredited.

Cognitive dissonance

Discomfort from holding conflicting thoughts or behaviors

Cognitive load

The total mental effort being used in the working memory.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to favor information that confirms existing beliefs.

Discrimination

Unjust actions or treatment toward members of a group.

Ethnocentrism

Belief that one’s own culture or group is superior to others.

Implicit attitudes

Unconscious beliefs or feelings that influence behavior.

Ingroup

A group an individual identifies as being a member of.

Ingroup bias

Preference and affinity for one’s own group over others.

Just-world phenomenon

Belief that the world is fair and people get what they deserve.

Outgroup

Group an individual does not belong to or identify with.

Outgroup homogeneity bias

Belief that members of the outgroup are more similar to each other than members of the ingroup.

Prejudice

Unjustified negative attitude toward a group and its members.

Stereotype

A generalized belief about a group of people.4.3 Psychology of Social Situations

Altruism

Selfless concern for the well-being of others.

Attitude strength

The durability and impact of an attitude on behavior.

Attentional focus

The concentration of attention on certain stimuli.

Burnout

Physical

Bystander effect

The tendency for individuals to be less likely to help in an emergency when others are present.

Central route

Persuasion through logical arguments and deep processing.

Collectivism

Priority given to group goals over individual goals.

Conformity

Adjusting behavior or thinking to align with group norms.

Deindividuation

Loss of self-awareness and restraint in group situations.

Diffusion of responsibility

Reduction in feelings of personal responsibility in the presence of others.

Door-in-the-face technique

Persuasion strategy of making a large request followed by a smaller one.

Elaboration likelihood model

Theory identifying two routes (central and peripheral) to persuasion.

False consensus effect

The tendency to overestimate how much others agree with us.

Foot-in-the-door technique

Persuasion strategy of getting a person to agree to a small request first.

Group polarization

Tendency for group discussion to strengthen the group’s initial views.

Groupthink

The desire for harmony in decision-making overrides realistic alternatives.

Halo effect

The tendency to let one positive trait influence overall impression.

Individualism

Priority given to personal goals over group goals.

Industrial-organizational psychology

The application of psychology to the workplace.

Informational social influence

Conforming because we believe others have accurate information.

Multiculturalism

Recognition and respect for cultural differences.

Normative social influence

Conforming to be liked or accepted.

Obedience

Following direct commands from authority figures.

Peripheral route

Persuasion via superficial cues like attractiveness or emotion.

Persuasion

Efforts to change someone’s attitudes or behaviors.

Prosocial behavior

Voluntary behavior intended to help others.

Role

Set of expectations about how to behave in a certain social position.

Situational variables

Environmental factors that influence behavior.

Social debt

Obligation felt when someone helps us.

Social facilitation

Improved performance in the presence of others.

Social influence theory

Theory that people conform due to desire for approval or correctness.

Social loafing

The tendency to exert less effort in group tasks.

Social norms

Expected standards of conduct in a group or society.

Social reciprocity norm

Expectation that people will help those who have helped them.

Social responsibility norm

Expectation that people will help those who depend on them.

Social traps

Situations where short-term self-interest leads to long-term group loss.

Superordinate goals

Shared goals that require cooperation between groups.

4.4 Psychoanalytic & Humanistic Theories of Personality

Defense mechanisms

Unconscious protective behaviors that reduce anxiety.

Denial

Refusing to accept reality or facts.

Displacement

Shifting impulses to a less threatening target.

Ego

Part of personality that mediates between id

Humanistic psychology

Perspective emphasizing personal growth and self-fulfillment.

Personality

An individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking

Preconscious

Thoughts not currently conscious but can be brought to awareness.

Projection

Attributing one’s own feelings or thoughts to another.

Projective tests

Tests that use ambiguous stimuli to reveal unconscious feelings.

Psychoanalysis

Frued’s therapeutic technique and theory of personality.

Psychodynamic theory

Modern version of psychoanalysis focusing on unconscious and early experiences.

Rationalization

Creating logical excuses for irrational behavior.

Reaction formation

Expressing the opposite of one’s true feelings.

Regression

Returning to an earlier stage of development.

Repression

Blocking anxiety-provoking thoughts from consciousness.

Self-actualization

The process of fulfilling one’s potential.

Sublimation

Channeling unacceptable impulses into acceptable activities.

Unconditional regard

Total acceptance of another person without conditions.

Unconscious

Reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts

Unconscious processes

Mental processes that occur without awareness.

4.5 Social-Cognitive & Trait Theories of Personality

Agreeableness

Tendency to be compassionate and cooperative.

Big Five theory

Model of five core personality traits: OCEAN.

Conscientiousness

Tendency to be organized and dependable.

Emotional Stability

Ability to remain calm and composed under stress.

Extraversion

Tendency to be sociable and outgoing.