Poli 381 - Midterm 2 (Full)

Theories on institutions - Realism

Views international order as based on power realities; institutions such as international law reflect but do not drive state power and interests

Theories on institutions - Liberalism

Views international order as a reflection of state values; states have incentives to cooperate through institutions

Global governance

The formal and informal processes and institutions that guide and control the activities of state and nonstate actors in the international system. Does not mean the creation of a world government; this governance is not always led by states, nor is it always led by the organizations created by states

Rules without physical/specific organization

International institutions

International institutions

Complexes of norms, rules, and practices that prescribe behavioural roles, constrain activity, and shape expectations. Created by states to achieve order

Formal/specific organization with rules

International organization

International organization

Any institution with formal procedures and membership from three or more countries, as multilateral relationships have significantly greater complexity than bilateral relationships

Institutions vs Organizations

• Institutions: The underlying structure and backbone of organizations; can exist without an organization

• Organizations: Seek to achieve the goals that states – collective and individually – have in their foreign policies; cannot exist without an institutional framework

2 Examples of institutions:

1. State sovereignty — an institution without a specific organization 

2. International law — an institution that informs formal organizations

International law

A core international institution; a framework of norms, rules, and practices created by states and other actors that shape how cooperation and coordination problems are solved

International law institution - Classical definition

Binding rules that govern relations between states; reflects and reinforces the Westphalian international order

International law institution - Modern definition

A set of rules applying across or outside of state borders; reflects and reinforces a liberal and multilateral international order

Where does international law come from?

1. Treaties

2. Customs

3. Courts

#1. Treaties

Agreements between/among states; bilateral and multilateral

Bilateral Treaties

Treaties signed between two states; analogous to contracts in domestic laws (eg. arms control agreements, extradition treaties)

Multilateral treaties

Treaties among three or more states; analogous to legislation. Usually about issues that affect many or all states (eg. UN Framework Convention on Climate Change; Rome Statute for the International Criminal Court)

#2. Customs

State practices that sometimes become law, but not always; certain practices have become law over time (eg. diplomatic immunity, law of the sea)

Two conditions for state behaviour to become customary law

1. Objective — behaviour must occur repeatedly

2. Subjective (opinio juris) — behavior must be performed out of legal obligation rather than habit or convenience

#3. Courts

The rulings of international courts become part of international law. Treaties and customs are sometimes ambiguous; courts interpret them, and the precedent is non-binding

Multilateral Diplomacy

Cooperation among three or more states based on or with a view to formulating reciprocal binding rules of conduct. The principal mechanism employed by states to legislate international law

Realist view on international law

Generally believe that international law should serve the interests of powerful states. This perspective has led to many debates around international law and organizations such as the UN, which protects the interests of major powers by focusing decision-making power in the Security Council

Origins of the UN

1945 — 51 original member states, with much of the colonized world excluded; all were welcome, once sovereign. Centered around learning lessons from the League of Nations, this time with enforcement powers for collective security and powerful states (P5) allowed exceptional powers and responsibilities including veto power

UN Charter

An international treaty agreed upon by member states that sets out basic principles of international relations; a “constitution” for international politics with core rule on force

4 purposes of the UN according to the Charter

1. To maintain international peace and security

2. To develop friendly relations among nations

3. To cooperate in solving international problems and in promoting respect for human rights

4. To be a center for harmonizing the actions of nations

Six main organs of the UN

1. The Security Council

2. The General Assembly

3. The Secretariat

4. The Economic and Social Council

5. The Trusteeship Council

6. The International Court of Justice 

The UN Security Council

The delegated primary authority for maintaining international peace and security. Consists of 10 non-permanent and 5 permanent members: China, France, Russia, UK, and US

International Court of Justice (ICJ)

Established in 1945 by the UN Charter — Rules and attempts to settle disputes between states. States must opt-in to being taken to court; non-compulsory jurisdiction under Article 32(2)

The UN General Assembly

A “parliament of nations” in which all UN member states are represented and meet to address global issues. Gives each state one vote; a 2/3 majority is required for decisions on key issues such as budget approvals and appointments of new Secretary-Generals, while other issues require a simple majority

The UN Secretariat

Carries out the substantive and administrative work of the UN as directed by its other organs. Led by the secretary-general, who provides overall administrative guidance 

The UN Economic & Social Council (ECOSOC)

Intends to coordinate the economic and social work of the UN and its family of organizations under the overall authority of the General Assembly, though it can only issue recommendations and receive reports 

The UN Trusteeship Council

Established to provide international supervision for 11 Trust Territories administered by 7 member states to ensure that adequate steps were taken to prepare the territories for self-governance. With its work completed, it now consists of the P5 from the Security Council, and meets when necessary

UN Charter: Rules for the World

• Chapter VI: States must try to settle conflicts peacefully, and should be encouraged to do so

• Chapter VII: The UN may respond to threats to international peace and security, with force if needed

3 Powers and responsibilities within the UN

• Security Council

• General Assembly

• Secretariat & Secretary General

UN Charter Article 99

Gives the UN Secretary-General a legal basis to bring an issue that may threaten international peace and security to the attention of the Security Council; the SG is expected to act as the organization’s peacemaker and guardian

Human security

Reinforced by the United Nations as an aspect of national interest involving the pursuit of justice for individuals

4 roles highlighted by Boutrous-Ghali for the UN after the Cold War in An Agenda for Peace (1992):

1. Preventive diplomacy

2. Peacemaking

3. Peacekeeping

4. Postconflict peacebuilding

Preventive diplomacy

Involves confidence-building measures, fact finding, and preventive deployment of UN authorized forces

Peacemaking

Designed to bring hostile parties to agreement through peaceful means

Two kinds of peacekeeping operations

1. Traditional

2. Complex/coercive

Peacekeeping (traditional)

The deployment of a non-hostile UN presence in the field with the consent of all parties

Complex/coercive peacekeeping operations

An interventionist method to implement peace accords with the authority to use force in order to enforce agreements and compel peace parties. Support peace processes such as collecting weapons, monitoring human rights, and running elections

Postconflict peacebuilding

Ideally aims to develop the social, political, and economic infrastructure needed to prevent further violence and to consolidate peace

Intervention

Traditionally, a deliberate incursion into a state without its consent by an agency aiming to change the functioning, policies, and goals of its government and achieve effects that favor the intervening agency

Security

A contested concept; the measures taken by states to ensure the safety of their citizens, the protection of their way of life, and the survival of their nation-state. Can also refer to the ownership of property that gives an individual the ability to secure the enjoyment of a right or a basic human need

Security dilemma

In an anarchic international system, in which one state seeking to improve its security creates insecurity in other states

Complex humanitarian emergencies (CHEs)

Defined by the UN as a humanitarian crisis in a country, region, or society where there is total or considerable breakdown of authority resulting from internal or external conflict, requiring a collective or multilateral response

4 IR Theories on Security

• Realist

• Liberal (Grotian)

• Global Humanist (Kantian Liberals)

• Marxist

Realist theory on security

• Military power is essential in supporting a state’s primary national interest of survival

• War is inevitable in an anarchic, self-centric system

• Self-help; another state or institution cannot be relied on to guarantee one’s survival

Liberal (Grotian) theory on security

• Nations should practice collective security for cooperation and assured protection of national interest

• Nations share responsibility for foreign policy successes and failures

• Defense of life and property are just causes, but if the cause of war is unjust, all acts arising from it are immoral

• Anticipatory self-defense is forbidden

• Complete security is impossible

Global Humanist (Kantian) theory on security

• Arms reduction is a desirable step toward disarmament

• The international norm against the use of nuclear weapons should be strengthened

• Security policy should be guided by a sense of human solidarity beyond borders

• Human interest should be prioritized over national interest

Marxist theory on security

• National security is the protection of those who own the means of production

• A large, oppressive military force is not needed if people are not exploited and oppressed by a small group of powerful capitalist elites

• Inequality is the main security threat in the global system

The widening school of international security

A desire to widen the definition of security to include economic, political, social, and environmental issues while avoiding ethnocentrism as part of a global security agenda

“Freedom from threat” at different levels of analysis

• Global → vulnerability to ecological/natural threats such as climate change

• International → collective threats to community of states, such as nuclear proliferation

• National → territorial integrity and political independence as well as wealth 

• Individual → impact of human rights, economic, environmental, and societal factors on the individual

Structural Realism

National security or insecurity is largely the result of the anarchic structure of the international system; international politics in the future is likely to be as violent as it was in the past due to global anarchy, miscalculations about others’ national interests, and the security dilemma

Liberal Institutionalism

Important changes are taking place in international relations that may relax the traditional security competition among states; international institutions play an important role in helping achieve global cooperation and stability

Social constructivists & security

State interests are not fixed, security policy is influenced by identity and norms

Feminism & security

Security is gendered, rooted in the traditionally masculine concept of dominance, and national security focuses on states and militaries, yet ignores gendered realities of conflict. Gender-based violence is a security issue

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

1949 - Initially established as a military alliance during the Cold War. Afterwards, it extended membership to the former Soviet Bloc but not Russia. Activities include deterrence, human rights protection, counter-terrorism, and stabilization

NATO Article 5

An attack on one is an attack on all

Carl von Clausewitz’s definition of war

A form of social and political behaviour, and an act of violence intended to compel an opponent to fulfill one’s will. Viewed war as rational and dedicated to specific objectives of a common good

Obsolescence of Major Wars Thesis

Suggests that among major powers, war is in the process of becoming obsolete due to technology, deterrence strategies, and social values

Postmodernity in war

• Fluid and technologically advanced forms of conflict

• Fragmentation

• Blurring of war and peace

• Asymmetry

• Technology and virtual battlefields

Hybrid conflict/warfare

An essentially contested concept. The use of gray zone tactics that include cyberattacks, propaganda, economic blackmail, sabotage, subversion, sponsorship of proxy wars, and, at times, aggressive military expansion as a means for states to pursue their national interests without resorting to full-scale military conflict.

The Gray Zone

A set of activities that occur between peace and war. Considered gradualist campaigns by state and non-state actors that combine non-military and quasi-military tools and fall below the threshold of armed conflict. Aim to thwart, destabilize, weaken, or attack an adversary, and are often tailored towards the vulnerabilities of the target state

DIME

Diplomatic, Informational, Military, & Economic; instruments of power used in hybrid warfare

Information Environment (IE)

The personal context in which individuals interact with information, influenced by factors such as time constraints, access to resources, sources of information, and conflicting personal commitments

Information Operations (IOs)

The deliberate use of false narratives through traditional and social media to mislead a population, and the amplification or weaponization of information in order to increase polarization or undermine the democratic institutions of a society to serve a particular interest

3 components of Information Operations

1. Essentially contested

2. Distinct

3. Strategic in nature

3 reasons why states might conduct IOs

• Expand global influence

• Avoid direct military confrontation, which is more costly

• Covert means to achieve national interests

4 places where IOs are often seen

• Social media

• Digital media & the internet

• News publications

• Government messaging