Motor-based Productions & Errors and Phonological Processes

Stops (plosives)

Airflow is completely stopped, then released /p, b, t, d, k, g/

Fricatives

Narrow constriction causes friction /f, v, s, z, ʃ, θ, ð, ʒ/

Affricates

Begin as a stop (complete closure) and release as a fricative (narrow constriction) /ʧ, ʤ/

Nasals

Airflow goes through the nose /m, n, ŋ/

Liquids 

Tongue creates a partial closure /l, r/ 

Glides

“semi-vowels,” smooth transition into vowels /w, j(y)/

Substitution

One sound is replaced by another (ex: “rabbit” "-→ “wabbit”

Omission

A sound is left out (ex: “cat” → “ca”)

Distortion

Listener perceives the target phoneme as unclear due to altered articulation of speech sounds. The sound is produced incorrectly, but not replaced by another English phoneme (ex: “sun” → “thun” with a frontal lisp - the /s/ is produced with the tongue between the teeth) 

Addition

An extra sound is inserted (ex: “blue” → “balue”)

Fronting 

Back sounds are made at the front (ex: “key” → “tee”) 

Backing

Front sounds are made at the back (ex: “toy” → “koy”)

Stopping 

Fricatives or affricates are replaced by stops (ex: “sun” -→ “tun”)

Deaffrication 

Affricate replaced by a fricative or sometimes a stop (ex: “chew” → “shoe”)

Gliding

/r/ or /l/ substituted for /w/ or /j/ (ex: “run” -→ “wun”)

Cluster Reduction

Simplifying consonant clusters (ex: “star” → “tar”)

Final Consonant Deletion

Omitting an ending sound (ex: “cat” → “ca”)

Initial Consonant Deletion 

Omitting a beginning sound (ex: “dog” → “og”) 

Weak Syllable Deletion

Dropping an unstressed syllable "(ex: “banana” → “nana”)

Reduplication

Repetition of (usually the first) syllable in disyllabic/polysyllabic words (ex: “bottle” → “baba” first syllable is repeated)

Coalescence

Features of two adjacent consonants combine to transform into a new consonant (ex: “train” becomes “chain” because /t/ + /r/ = /ʧ/

Epenthesis

Insertion of a segment (typically a schwa) in the middle of a word (usually between two consonants)

Metathesis

Reversal or swapping of the position of two consonants in a word (rare)