M2 Neurobiology

Neuron / glia

Neuron: A nerve cell that sends electrical and chemical signals; basic unit in the nervous systems (transmit signals)

Glia: Support cells that nourish, protect, and assist neurons; non-neural brain cell that provide support cells (support the process)

Cortex / lobe

Cortex: The outer layer of the brain responsible for thinking, perception, and memory (whole outer brain layer)

Lobe: A large section of the brain cortex (e.g., frontal, temporal) (main subdivisions of the brain)

Gyrus / sulcus

Gyrus: A ridge or bump (raised portions) on the brain surface (raised areas)

Sulcus: A groove or fold between gyri; crevices or valley in brain surface (grooves between them)

Corpus callosum

A thick band of nerve fibers (axons) that connects the left and right brain hemispheres

Gray / white matter

Gray Matter: Made of neuron cell bodies; processes information (processing)

White Matter: Made of axons with myelin; transmits information (communication)

Glutamate / GABA

Glutamate: Main excitatory neurotransmitter (makes neurons fire, excites).

GABA: Main inhibitory neurotransmitter (calms neurons down, inhibits).

Limbic system

Brain network involved in emotions, memory, and motivation

CAT / MRI imaging

CAT (CT): Uses X-rays to show brain structure, a technique for examining brain structure through computer analysis of X-ray absorption (quick, lower in detail)

MRI: Uses magnets and radio waves for detailed brain images (more detail, no radiation)

PET / TMS imaging

PET: Measures brain activity by tracking a radioactive tracer; an invasive technique that tracks metabolism of injected radioactive substance in the brain to map activity (see activity)

TMS: Uses magnetic pulses to stimulate or disrupt brain activity; technique that applies strong magnetic fields to stimulate cortical neurons to identify discrete areas that are particularly active during specific behavior (change activity)

Voxel / DTI imaging

Voxel: A 3D pixel used in brain scans; noninvasive technique for segregating and measuing differences in white and gray matter concentration (MRI, fMRI) (basic image unit)

DTI (Diffusion Tensor Imaging): Maps white matter pathways by tracking water movement; use MRI to measure white matter connectivity between regions (show connections)

Neurotransmitter

Chemicals released from the axon terminal that seves as the absis for communication

Cognitive load

The amount of mental effort being used at a given moment.

Neuropharmacology

The study of how drugs affect the brain and behavior.

Action / resting potential

Resting Potential: The stable, negative charge of a neuron at rest (baseline)

Action Potential: A burst of electrical activity when a neuron fires (active signal)

Voltage-gated channel / Na+ (sodium)

Voltage-Gated Channel: Opens/closes in response to voltage changes (gate)

Na+ (Sodium): Ions that enter neuron to start action potential (what flows through it)

Axon hillock / terminal / myelin sheath

Axon Hillock: Where the neuron decides to fire (decision point)

Terminal: Sends signal to next neuron (signal end)

Myelin Sheath: Fatty coating that speeds up signals (speed booster)

Pre- / post-synaptic / synaptic cleft

Pre-synaptic: Neuron sending the signal; transmitting side (sender)

Post-synaptic: Neuron receiving and responding to the signal (receiver)

Synaptic Cleft: Tiny gap between them (space in between)

Post-synaptic receptor / enzyme

Receptor: Protein that catches neurotransmitters (receiver)

Enzyme: Breaks down neurotransmitters after use (cleaner)

Endocannaboids / endogenous opioids

Endocannabinoids: Natural cannabis-like chemicals that regulate mood, appetite, and pain

Endogenous Opioids: Natural painkillers like endorphins.

Autonomic system / SNS / PNS

Autonomic System: Controls involuntary functions (heart, digestion)

SNS (Sympathetic Nervous System): Activates “fight or flight.”

PNS (Parasympathetic Nervous System): Calms the body (“rest and digest”).

Seratonin / norepinephrine

Serotonin: Affects mood, sleep, and appetite ; will power, well-being, happiness, sleep and sex cycle (mood balance)

Norepinephrine: Affects alertness and stress response; attention, response, mood, and sexual motivation (alertness and arousal)

Acetycholine / dopamine

Acetylcholine: Involved in learning, memory, and seetneion and wakefulness (memory / muscle)

Dopamine: Linked to reward, movement, and motivation (reward / movement )

Antipsychotics / antidepressants

Antipsychotics: Treat symptoms of psychosis; blocking dopamine receptors (reduce hallucinations).

Antidepressants: Treat depression and anxiety; increase synaptic transmission (boost mood)

Anxiolytics / opiates

Anxiolytics: Reduce anxiety; have a tranquilizing effect and inhibit anxiety (e.g., benzodiazepines).

Opiates: Relieve pain and cause euphoria (e.g., morphine)

Nicotine / alcohol

Nicotine: A stimulant found in tobacco that increases alertness (stimulant)

Alcohol: A depressant that slows down brain activity (depressant)

Describe the actions that occur in each of the four functional zones of a neuron.

1. Input- collects and process the information

2. Integeration- produce the neural signal

3. Conduction - where the signal is electrically transmited

4. Output- neurons transfer information to other cells

What are the three basic types of neurons? How do they differ in their basic anatomical and processing structure?

Motor

Sensory

Interneuron (brain and spinal cord, the bridge in neurosis

Motor Neuron

Most common in the nercous system, large size, long axon,

Interneruron

brain and spinal cord, bridge of sensory and motor activty to the brain, 2 forms (1. Axons and dentrites on opposite sides of the body 2. like a motor neuron), answer only a few micrometers

Sensory Neuron

gother sensory information; single short stock divide into 2 axon branches

List the four distinct lobes in the human brain.

Frontal

parietal

Temporal

Occipital

How does the outcome of a functional MRI differ from that of a standard MRI?

A functional MRI (fMRI) shows how the brain functions by mapping brain activity during a specific task, while a standard MRI shows the structure of the brain and other organs

What are the four qualification that should be met for a chemical to be categorized as a neurotransmitter?

1. Synthesized by presynaptice neurons and stored in axon terminals

2. Realse when action potentials rech terminals

3. recognized by specific receptos locateed on postsynaptic membrane

4. Blocking release interferes with ability of a presynaptic cell to affect the postsynaptic cells

What are the four "classic" categories of neurotransmitters?

Amino acids (GABA, glutamate, glycin,e hystomin

Peptides (endorphins, oxytocin, vasopressin)

Amines (acetylcholine, dopamine, and serotonin)

Gases (diffuse between neurons, nitric oxide, carbon dioxide)

Describe the four phases of an action potential.

1. Finding the Threshold (depolarization occurs that trigger an action potential)

2. All or Nothing (once the neuron starts, it will continue)

3. Refractory Period (the pause before it can fire again)

4. One Direction

What does a wave of electrical charge do to a neuron?

action potential, triggers the transmission of signals

Neuroactive and psychoactive drugs fall into what two distinct categories?

Agonists – These drugs mimic or enhance the effects of a neurotransmitter. They activate receptors or increase neurotransmitter levels.

Antagonists – These drugs block or reduce the effects of a neurotransmitter. They prevent receptors from being activated.

What kinds of feelings and behaviors are associated with the amygdala?

fear, anxiety, anger, and pleasure

The outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres is the:

cerebral cortex

This structural unit is composed of the cerebellum, pons, and medulla oblongata

brainstem

Amine neurotransmitters follow complex networks through the brain and communicate with distinct sets of brain targets to effect a multimodal experience (i.e., integrating more that one response). These neurotransmitters are commonly referred to as:

monoamines

For a chemical to be identified as a "classic" neurotransmitter, it must be released when action potentials reach terminals.

true

A neuron’s action potential can travel down the axon and back up again.

false

This imaging technique uses magnetism and radio-frequency energy to create images of the gross structure of the living brain:

MRI

The part of a neuron that transmits information over long distances is the:

axon

This amino acid is the most common exitatory transmitter:

glutamate

In a neuron, this functional (processing) zone is where information is electrically transmitted:

conduction zone