Pathophysiology Exam 1 Review

A comprehensive vocabulary review deck covering core concepts of pathophysiology, fluid and electrolyte imbalances, acid-base disorders, pain mechanisms, inflammation, infection, and immunity.

Physiology

The study of how the body normally functions.

Pathophysiology

The study of functional or physiologic changes in the body that result from a disease process.

Idiopathic

Refers to a disease or condition whose underlying cause is unknown.

Iatrogenic

Refers to a disease or condition caused by a medical treatment, procedure, or error.

Congenital Disease

A medical condition or defect that is present at birth, which may be inherited or caused by environmental factors.

Manifestation

The clinical evidence of a disease, encompassing both objective signs and subjective symptoms.

Sign

An objective indicator of disease that can be observed or measured by a clinician (e.g., fever, rash, elevated blood pressure).

Symptom

A subjective feeling or indicator of disease reported by the patient (e.g., pain, nausea, dizziness).

Focal / Local Signs

Manifestations that are concentrated in one specific area or at the direct site of the problem (e.g., localized swelling, redness, pain).

Systemic Signs

General indicators of illness that affect the body overall rather than a single specific location (e.g., fever, fatigue, malaise).

Morbidity

The disease rates or proportion of illness within a specific group or population.

Mortality

The relative number of deaths resulting from a specific disease.

Prognosis

The probability or likelihood of recovery or other specific outcomes from a disease.

Primary Prevention

Measures aimed at preventing a disease or condition before it occurs (e.g., vaccinations, health education, healthy lifestyle modifications).

Secondary Prevention

Measures focused on early detection and screening of disease to allow early intervention (e.g., Pap smears, mammograms, blood pressure screening).

Homeostasis

The maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment in the body regardless of external changes.

Biopsy

The excision and examination of small amounts of living tissue for diagnostic evaluation.

Autopsy

A postmortem examination of the body and organs to determine the cause of death or examine tissue changes.

Etiology

The study or determination of the direct causative factors of a particular disease.

Pathogenesis

The sequence of events involved in the development and progression of a disease.

Insidious Onset

A gradual, vague, or mild onset of disease signs and symptoms over time.

Subclinical State

A disease stage in which pathologic changes occur in the body without producing obvious clinical manifestations.

Latent State

A stage with no symptoms or clinical signs evident; in infectious diseases, this is referred to as the incubation period.

Prodromal Period

The early phase in the development of a disease when signs are non-specific or absent.

Lesion

A specific local change or structural alteration in a tissue.

Syndrome

A collection of signs and symptoms that typically occur together in response to a specific disease state.

Remission

A period during a disease course when clinical manifestations subside or disappear.

Exacerbation

A period of worsening or increased severity in disease signs and symptoms.

Precipitating Factor

A specific condition or event that triggers an acute episode of a disease.

Sequelae

Potential unwanted outcomes or secondary consequences resulting from a primary disease or condition.

Epidemiology

The science of tracking the patterns, occurrences, and distribution of diseases in human populations.

Incidence

The number of new cases of a disease arising in a given population within a specified time period.

Prevalence

The total number of new, old, or existing cases of a disease within a given population and time period.

Epidemic

The occurrence of a higher number of expected cases of an infectious disease within a specific geographic area.

Pandemic

An outbreak involving a higher number of infectious disease cases across many regions of the globe.

Communicable Diseases

Infectious diseases capable of being transmitted from one person to another.

Notifiable / Reportable Diseases

Diseases that healthcare providers must legally report to designated public health authorities to prevent community spread.

Atrophy

A cellular adaptation resulting in a decrease in individual cell size and reduced tissue mass.

Hypertrophy

A cellular adaptation resulting in an increase in individual cell size and enlarged tissue mass.

Hyperplasia

An increase in the total number of cells, resulting in an enlarged tissue mass.

Metaplasia

A cellular adaptation in which one mature cell type is replaced by a different mature cell type.

Dysplasia

A tissue change where cells vary in size and shape within a tissue.

Anaplasia

Undifferentiated cells with variable nuclear and cellular structures, characteristic of cancer.

Neoplasia

Means 'new growth,' commonly referred to as a tumor.

Abnormal Cell Growth Patterns

Tissue modifications reflecting cell adaptations including atrophy, hypertrophy, hyperplasia, metaplasia, dysplasia, and neoplasia.

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death, a normal physiological occurrence in the body.

Ischemia

A deficit of oxygenated blood supply to a tissue or organ.

Hypoxia

A reduced level of oxygen supplied to body tissues.

Pyroptosis

Cell damage resulting in lysis that triggers an inflammatory response in nearby tissue.

Liquefaction Necrosis

Tissue death in which dead cells liquefy due to the release of cellular enzymes.

Coagulative Necrosis

Tissue death in which cell proteins are altered or denatured, causing coagulation.

Fat Necrosis

Breakdown of fatty tissue into fatty acids due to injury or enzymatic activity.

Caseous Necrosis

A form of coagulation necrosis yielding a thick, yellowish, 'cheesy' substance.

Infarction

An area of dead cells resulting from oxygen deprivation and acute cessation of blood flow.

Gangrene

An area of necrotic tissue that has been invaded by bacteria.

Third-Spacing

A situation where fluid shifts out of the blood into a body cavity or tissue and can no longer easily re-enter the vascular compartment.

Dehydration

Insufficient body fluid resulting from inadequate fluid intake, excessive loss, or both.

Osmoreceptors

Sensory receptors located in the hypothalamus that detect changes in fluid concentration/osmolality to regulate thirst and ADH release.

Baroreceptors

Sensory receptors that detect pressure or stretch changes, particularly in blood vessels to monitor blood pressure.

Chemoreceptors

Sensory receptors that detect chemical changes in the body, such as levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH.

Hyponatremia

Low serum sodium levels causing fluid to shift into cells, leading to hypovolemia, low blood pressure, cerebral edema, confusion, and seizures.

Hypernatremia

High serum sodium levels resulting in weakness, agitation, dry/rough mucous membranes, intense thirst, and elevated blood pressure.

Hypokalemia

Serum potassium level $K^+ < 3.5\,mEq/L$, causing cardiac dysrhythmias, muscle weakness, paresthesias, decreased GI motility, and polyuria.

Hyperkalemia

Serum potassium level $K^+ > 5\,mEq/L$, causing severe cardiac dysrhythmias, cardiac arrest, muscle weakness, and paralysis.

Chvostek Sign

A clinical sign of hypocalcemia where tapping over the facial nerve causes involuntary facial muscle twitching.

Hypocalcemia

Low serum calcium levels leading to increased nerve membrane permeability/excitability, muscle twitching, carpopedal spasms, tetany, and weak cardiac contractions.

Hypercalcemia

High serum calcium levels leading to depressed neuromuscular activity, muscle weakness, lethargy, personality changes, and impaired renal function.

Serum pH Scale

The normal serum pH range is $7.35\text{--}7.45$; values below $6.8$ or above $7.8$ are incompatible with life.

Respiratory Acidosis

An acid-base imbalance caused by retention of $CO_2$ (e.g., COPD, hypoventilation), resulting in elevated $P_{CO_2}$ and decreased serum pH.

Respiratory Alkalosis

An acid-base imbalance caused by excessive elimination of $CO_2$ (e.g., hyperventilation, anxiety), resulting in decreased $P_{CO_2}$ and elevated serum pH.

Metabolic Acidosis

An acid-base imbalance caused by loss of bicarbonate ions (e.g., severe diarrhea) or accumulation of metabolic acids (e.g., DKA, renal failure).

Metabolic Alkalosis

An acid-base imbalance caused by loss of hydrogen ions (e.g., severe vomiting, gastric suction) or excess bicarbonate intake.

Somatic Pain

Pain arising from skin (cutaneous), bone, or muscle, conducted by sensory fibers.

Visceral Pain

Pain originating in internal organs, conducted by sympathetic nerve fibers.

Pain Threshold

The minimum level of stimulation required to elicit a pain response, which usually does not vary among individuals.

Pain Tolerance

The degree, intensity, or duration of pain an individual can cope with, which varies widely and is influenced by culture and endorphins.

Nociceptors

Free sensory nerve endings that act as pain receptors sensitive to thermal, chemical, or physical stimuli.

A-Delta Fibers

Fast, myelinated afferent nerve fibers that transmit sharp, localized, acute pain impulses rapidly.

C Fibers

Slow, unmyelinated afferent nerve fibers that transmit dull, burning, or aching chronic pain impulses.

Dermatome

An area of skin innervated by a specific spinal nerve, mapped in the somatosensory cortex.

Pain Pathway

The neural pathway transmitting pain stimuli from nociceptors through peripheral nerves, spinal cord, spinothalamic tracts, and brain regions.

Gate Control Theory

A mechanism in which control 'gates' in the spinal cord and brain can open to transmit pain or close to inhibit pain passage.

Referred Pain

Pain perceived at a location distant from the actual source of tissue damage, typical of visceral organ injury.

Phantom Pain

Pain, itching, or tingling sensation perceived in a body part or limb that has been amputated.

First Line of Defense

Nonspecific mechanical barriers including unbroken skin, mucous membranes, and body secretions like tears and gastric juices.

Second Line of Defense

Nonspecific innate immune responses including phagocytosis, inflammation, and interferon.

Third Line of Defense

Specific immune defense mechanisms involving cell-mediated immunity and antibody production by lymphocytes.

Neutrophils

First-responder phagocytic white blood cells that migrate to the injury site to phagocytize bacteria.

Exudate

Fluid and proteins that exit the capillaries into the interstitial space during an inflammatory response.

Serous Exudate

Watery exudate consisting primarily of fluid, small amounts of protein, and white blood cells.

Fibrinous Exudate

Thick, sticky exudate characterized by high cell and fibrin content.

Purulent Exudate

Thick, yellow-green exudate containing abundant leukocytes, cell debris, and microorganisms (pus).

Hemorrhagic Exudate

An exudate containing blood, present when blood vessels are damaged.

Abscess

A localized pocket of purulent exudate surrounded by solid tissue.

Pyrexia

Fever resulting from the release of pyrogens that reset the hypothalamic temperature set-point.

Leukocytosis

An increased number of circulating white blood cells in the blood, particularly neutrophils, during inflammation.

Resolution

A healing process occurring after minimal tissue damage where damaged cells recover and tissue returns to normal.

Regeneration

A healing process where damaged tissue is replaced by functional cells of the same cell type.

Replacement

A healing process where functional tissue is replaced by nonelastic fibrous scar tissue, resulting in loss of function.

Contractures

Deformities or restricted range of joint movement caused by nonelastic scar tissue shrinking over time.