UWorld Identity and Social Interaction

Nonverbal Communication

Includes all the wordless cues meant to convey meaning to another individual, such as body language, head gestures, facial expressions, and vocal inflections. Research suggests that nonverbal communication has an important impact on social interactions.

Structural Functionalism

A macro level (large scale) sociological perspective suggesting that all aspects of society work together to maintain dynamic equilibrium (societal balance.) Is not concerned with small scale interactions (communication).

Elaboration Likelihood Model

Propose that when an individual is uninterested in a message, superficial factors (an attractive celebrity spokesperson) might be most persuasive.

Symbolic Interactionism

A micro level sociological theory that suggests people communicate using symbols. (hand gestures.) Stemming from symbolic interactions, the dramaturgical perspective proposes that individuals behave as actors, behaving in front of others in ways that align with social norms. Both are nonverbal communication.

Discrimination

Involves actions that negatively affect certain social groups (a certain race or gender). Individual discrimination involves person to person interactions that involve unfair treatment (male manager refuses to hire females). Institutional discrimination involves policies at the organizational level that result in the unfair treatment of certain people based on group membership

Group Polarization

Occurs when group members adopt a more extreme attitude or course of action after group discussion with like minded/similar members. Opinions can be polarized in either direction (more negative) or (more positive)

Groupthink

Occurs when a group arrives at an incorrect/ineffective/inaccurate or irrational decision because group members value getting along and reaching a consensus more than they value critical evaluations of alternatives. Occurs in groups that have well liked and strong leaders.

Social Loafing

Occurs when an individual exerts less effort as a member of a group n when alone.

Stereotypes

Overgeneralized beliefs about groups and can be positive or negative.

Prejudice

Involves negative beliefs and feelings about members of a group.

Discrimination

Involves actions based on stereotypes and prejudice that negatively affects a group.

Subculture

A group of individuals who are characteristically distinct from the dominant culture in some way but whose values and norms still align with the dominant culture.

Dominant Culture

Includes the established set of norms, values, rituals, and beliefs that define a society.

Counterculture

A group of individuals whose norms and values oppose those of the dominant culture (hippie counterculture oppose vietnam war while dominant culture supports it)

Aggregate

A collection of individuals who share a location but do not identify as a group (all the people at a cafe at 6 AM)

Primary Group

Composed of people who have frequent contact and are emotionally connected (family and close friends)

Secondary Group

Consist of people who interact for a common goal (coworkers)

Cognition (Prejudice)

The result of cognition from prejudice results from the quick , unconscious categorization of people using schemas based on age, ace/ethnicity, and gender

Implicit Associations Test (IAT)

A psychometric technique designed to measure unconscious attitudes including prejudice (negative feelings and beliefs)

Stereotype Threat

Occurs when an individual is made aware of a negative stereotype regarding a group with which the individual identifies and this awareness causes the individual’s performance to suffer. Evokes feelings of nervousness which are mediated by the autonomic nervous system.

Cultural Relativism

In which there are no right or wrong cultural practices, is most inclusive of cultural differences.

Self Concept

Refers to beliefs about oneself, including beliefs about race/ethnicity, gender, ability, talent, and so on.

Self Fulfilling Prophecy

When a belief about something (that may or may not be true) influences the behavior of the person who believes it, resulting in an outcome that may validate the belief is true.

Social Groups

Composed of individuals who interact and identify with each other. As group size increases, the number of potential social ties (relationships between individuals) also increases.

Dyad

2 members. 1 social tie. More intimate. Group ceases to exist if one member leaves.

Triad

3 members. 3 social ties. More stable. One member can leave and group still exists.

Tetrad

4 members. Up to 6 social ties. Least stable. Can split into two groups of two.

Large Group

5+ members. Many social ties. Social processes may occur (groupthink and social loafing)

More Social Ties:

Makes a more stable group

Autocommunication

Occurs when a message sender is also the receiver

Altruism

Behavior that benefits others in a group at a potential cost or risk of oneself. Altruism can be explained by inclusive fitness and game theory.

Inclusive Fitness

The sum of an individual’s direct fitness (Own reproduction) and indirect fitness (cooperative behavior that aids kin)

Game Theory

Mathematically evaluates the relative success of particular strategies (behavioral phenotypes) over time. When the evolutionary benefit of a social behavior outweighs he cost of that behavior game theory predicts that the behavioral phenotype will persist.

Attributional Biases

Are cognitive biases (common errors in thinking) that occur when people attempt to explain their own behavior or the behavior of someone else. Attributions can be dispositional, (based on internal characteristics/personality) or situational (based on external/environmental)

Actor-Observer Bias

The tendency to attribute one’s own actions to external factors but the actions of others to external factors.

Experimenter Bias

Occurs when researchers inadvertently or deliberately inluence their study, results that confirm what the researcher was expecting.

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to blame others behaviors on internal factors instead of external factors.

Self Serving Bias

Occurs when individuals attribute their success to internal factors but their failures to external factors

Attachment

The emotional bond between child and caregiver

Secure Attachment

Develops from sensitive, responsive caregivers.

Infants readily explore a new environment when caregiver is near

Infants are distressed by a caregiver leaving and comforted on return

( associated with better long term effects, satisfaction adult relationships and greater health outcomes)

Insecure Attachment

Develops from insensitive, irresponsible caregivers

In a new environment, infants are apathetic and overly clingy toward caregiver

Infants are indifferent to, or not to comforted by a caregiver’s return

Associated with worse long term effects (Less satisfaction in adult relationships and poorer health outcomes)

Social Network

Informal and non hierarchical webs of interaction between nodes which are linked by ties. Nodes can either be individuals or organizations. Ties are. the connections between nodes and can be either strong or weak. Weak ties are loose/flimsy connections (acquaintances) and strong ties are solid connections (family).

Social Capital

Refers to a person’s network of people that can be converted into economic gain.

Social Mobility

Refers to the movement of individuals, groups, or families between or within status categories in a society. (From middle class to upper class)

Halo Effect

An attributional effect that occurs when an individual with a positive quality (physical attraction) is assumed to have other positive qualities (smart)

Confounding Variable

An uncontrolled variable that has an impact on the dependent or independent variable

Bureaucracy

A modern form of organization adopted by complex societies, designed to be rational and maximize efficiency

Defining Features of Bureaucracies

1. Division of labor: Specialized employees increase efficiency (individuals focus on area of expertise)

2. Hierarchal organization: Centralized authority and clear chain of command so everyone knows their role

3. Standardization: Clear rules and procedures increase uniformity and continuity

4. Impersonal: Same impersonal criteria applied to all increase quality (hiring based on merit_

Popular Culture

Refers to ideas attitudes, and behaviors that are widespread in society. Reflects the beliefs and behaviors of the masses ( believe in freedom, watch TV, buy blue jeans) whereas high culture is relevant to only a small fraction Those who are wealthy and/or educated)

Fads

Trends and crazes occurring over a short period of a segment of the population.

Mass Media

Includes all the routes through which information reaches large numbers of people in society. (Internet or TV)

Biological Evolution

Genetic traits from parent to offspring

Occurs from one generation to the next

Slow and over the course of ons

Independent of learning

Transmission by the way of genes

Cultural Evolution

Behavioral traits between related or unrelated individuals

Occurs between or within generations

May occur slowly or quickly

Results from education, teaching, or scientific progression

Transmission by the way of language and behavior

In Group

Group to which an individual identifies with or belongs to and views other members in the in group favorably

Out Group

Group to which an individual does not belong to or identify with and are views unfavorably

Reference Group

Comparison group to which an individual compares self and individual may or may not be in this group

Primary Group

Group of individuals who are close and smaller in size high degree of interaction (family)

Secondary Group

Group of individuals who come together to accomplish something and are larger in size impersonal (coworkers)

Socialization

Learning the norms and values of a society or culture

Social Norms

Unwritten rules that members of a society expected to follow in order to maintain order. Ensure predictable behavior, provide guidelines for behavior in new situations, individuals understand the behaviors of others

Confirmation Bias

A type of cognitive bias (common error in thinking) in which individuals tend to embrace evidence supporting their beliefs, dismiss or ignore evidence refuting their beliefs, and interpret ambigous evidence as support.

Self Serving Bias

Occurs when success is credited to internal factors and failure is credited to external factors.

Social Constructionism

A theory that suggests that social interactions establish reality through the creation of social constructs (race) which have meaning duals in society have agreed on that meaning.

Impression Management

Trying to influence how one is perceived by others by employing certain behaviors. (covering ones tattoos for a medical school interview)

Looking Glass Self

Describes the way our interpretation our interpretation of how others perceive us impacts our self concept (our beliefs about ourselves).

Bystander Effect

Predicts that as the number of onlookers increase, the probability of an onlooker helping someone in need decreases. This can be partly explained by the diffusion of responsibility, whereby onlookers assume action will be taken by someone else.

Mead

Associated with the sociological theory of symbolic interactionism, argued that social (rather than biological) factors influence identity formation. He suggested that the experience of self emerges through social interactions with others who play important and formative roles in one’s life (family.) The two aspects are the “I'“ and the “me”.

Preparatory Stage (Mead)

Imitation. Babies/toddlers imitate others (parent’s hand gesture) and begin uses symbols and language (repeating a phrase used by a parent) without meaning comprehension. At this stage, children have no sense of “self” as separate from the world around them.

Play Stage (Mead)

Through play (pretending to be a doctor), preschool age children begin role taking (understanding the perspectives of others). When children understand themselves as individuals separate from others, the “I” component of the self has developed. Children then begin to imagine how others perceive them. which is the beginning of the development of the “me.”

Game Stage (Mead)

School age children become aware of their position/role in relation to others. They begin to see themselves from the perspective of the more abstract generalized other, further developing the “me” to incorporate the values and rules of the society they live in.

Dramaturgical Perspective

Explains social behavior using a theater metaphor, the front stage self involves individuals behaving as “actors” in front of an audience whereas the back stage self includes the behaviors in which an individual engages more privately.

Symbolic Interactionism

A microsociological perspective concerned with the interpersonal interactions through which people develop subjective meaning shaping social reality. Subjective meanings differ by context and control (handshaking in the USA vs bowing in Japan) and can change over time.

The definition of the situation describes how shared expectations for behavior help people understand the roles of everyone involved in an interaction.

Folkways

Least deviant. (Wearing clothes backwards.) Minor punishments (staring)

Mores

More Deviant. (Wearing no clothes in public). More serious punishment (getting arrested).

Taboos

Most deviant. (Incest.) Most serious punishment. (Incarceration)

Stereotype Boost

Stereotype lift occurs when positive stereotypes about social groups cause improved performance. (Asians are good at math)

Ascribed Status

Assigned social position (race)

Achieved Status

Attained social position (doctor)

Master Status

Dominant social position. (ex-convict)

Social Reproduction

Refers to the transmission of society’s values, norms, and practices, including social inequality, from one generation the next.

Occupational Prestige

A measure of the respect and esteem (prestige) of a given occupation. Occupations requiring the most education are generally ranked highest.

Intersectional Analysis

Argues that people hold several statuses (group memberships) simultaneously, which must be considered together in understanding an individual’s overall experience and perspective. An individual does not operate simply based on race, gender, or any other social identity alone but more specificially as a young black male or a white heterosexual female.

Labelling Theory

Suggests that when someone is labeled as deviant, the act of being labeled produces further deviance. The initial act is called primary deviance and, if labeled, results in social stigma such as disapproval of others. Internalization of the deviant label leads to further acts of deviance, called secondary deviance.

Differential Association Theory

Suggests that deviance is learned through interaction. (Goes to prison for drug possession and learns from incarcerated seller how to efficiently sell drugs)

Conflict Theory

Suggests that laws are created to serve those in power to maintain their privilege.

Factors Correlated with Increased Obedience

Personal Factors: lowers status and less power

Situational Factors: Proximity: Authority figure is closer and victim is farther away

Legitimacy: Authority figure seems more legitimate, prestigious

Consensus: Everyone else is obeying

Cultural Factors: Collectivism, societies value the group over the individual

Obedience

A type of conformity in which an individual carries out orders given by an authority figure.

Kohlberg Theory of Moral Development

Pre Conventional Stage: Morality is externally controlled by punishment (stage 1) (If I steal I get spanked) and reciprocity of others (stage 2) (I will help you if you help me)

Conventional Stage: Morality is based on conforming to others (stage 3) (I will do homework so the teacher likes me) and obeying the law (I am not going to speed because it is against the law)

Post Conventional Stage: Morality is based on social contract (stage 5) (it is okay to break a law if it saves a life) and personal code of ethics (stage 6) (I take action against laws against human rights)

Culture

Group bonds created by shared objects, ideas, values, and beliefs.

Symbolic Culture

Nonmaterial aspects of a society used to communicate and convey meaning (Folklore, values, laws)

Material Culture

Physical items valued by society (Clothing, tools, andcomputers)

Cultural Transmission

Passing on of information from an older generation to a newer generation. ( A child learns to cook from a parent)

Cultural Diffusion

Spreading of culture from one group to another (Americans that celebrate cinco de mayo)

Identity Development of Theory

Evaluates the psychological progress of individuals based on their level of commitment and degree of exploration yielding four identities.

Identity Diffusion

Low commitment and low exploration. These people lack direction, have no explored options. and do not have a committed career path/future.

Identity Foreclosure

High commitment and low exploration. Have an accepted identity that has been assigned (by a parent/authority figure) without contemplation/exploration.

Identity Moratorium

Low commitment and high exploration. People are trying new activities and thinking of career paths but have not arrived at a decision.

Identity Achievement

High commitment and high exploration, People have explored their options and are confident about who they are and what they want to do in the future.

Culture Shock

Unpleasant emotions associated with a new culture. (Disorientation, anxiety, fear)

Caused by language barriers, unfamiliar symbols and signs, different norms and values, and difficulty interpreting behaviors

Assimilation

When people adopt the culture of their new country which replaces the culture of their native country.