A reaction starts with a ________ and ends with a _________.
substrate, product
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Energy of activation
the amount of energy required to start a reaction
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Enzyme
A type of (usually) protein that speeds up a chemical reaction in a living thing
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enzymes are
organic catalysts
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Characteristics of catalysts
speed up reactions by lowering activation energy, only work in one specific reaction, reusable
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Substrate
A specific reactant acted upon by an enzyme
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Active site
The part of an enzyme where the chemical reaction occurs.
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induced fit model
enzyme model where the substrate induces the enzyme to alter its shape slightly so it fits better
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Enzyme-substrate complex
A temporary complex formed when an enzyme binds to its substrate molecule(s).
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After chemical reaction, substrate(s) turn to
Product(s)
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Factors that can affect enzymes
temperature, pH, and enzyme concentration
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Cold temperatures will make reactions
slower
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Warm temperatures will make reactions
faster
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If an enzyme gets too hot
it will denature
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Denaturation
loss of normal shape of a protein due to heat or other factor
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If an enzyme is exposed to pH levels that are too acidic or too basic
it will denature
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The more enzyme in a reaction
the faster the reaction proceeds
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The less enzyme in a reaction
the slower the reaction proceeds
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the more substrate in a reaction
the slower the reaction proceeds with more product
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The less substrate in a concentration
the faster the reaction proceeds with less product
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Inhibitors
stop or slow the enzyme's functioning
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Competitive inhibitors
Compete with the substrate to slow the enzyme's ability to function
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Noncompetitive inhibitors
Bond with the enzyme and stop is functioning, potentially causing permanent damage to the enzyme
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Examples of noncompetitive inhibitors
toxins and poisons
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Negative feedback
When the body uses competitive inhibitors to regulate itself
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Cofactors
inorganic enzyme helpers (ions and minerals)
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Coenzymes
organic enzyme helpers (vitamins)
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Exergonic reaction
when a reaction releases energy
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Endergonic reaction
when a reaction takes in more energy than it releases (stores)
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Electronegativity
tendency of atoms to want to take electrons from other atoms
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Redox reactions
When there is a transfer of one or more electrons from one reactant to another (oxidation and reduction)
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Oxidation
when an atom loses an electron during a reaction
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Reduction
when an atom gains an electron during a reaction
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Biochemical pathway
a series of linked reactions
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Metabolism
the sum of the reactions in a biochemical pathway
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Homeostasis
when a cell regulates its chemical reactions/maintains internal equilibrium
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ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
transports energy needed for metabolic reactions around the cell
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ATP is a
nucleotide, with ribose as its sugar and adenine as its nitrogenous base
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ATP has ___ phosphate groups
three
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ADP (adenosine diphosphate)
the outcome of ATP after the energy within is used
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ATP has ___ and ADP has ___
energy, no energy
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Photosynthesis uses the energy of what to make sugar
Sunlight
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Autotrophs
organisms that preform photosynthesis
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Photons
particles of light that move in waves
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Sunlight is
visible/white light
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Pigments
capture most of the plant's energy
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Chlorophyll
Most common pigment, absorbs all colors except green
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Chlorophyll A
Primary pigment, absorbs more red
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Chlorophyll B
Accessory pigment, absorbs more blue
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Carotenoids
absorb more blue and reflect orange
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Formula for photosynthesis
6H₂O + 6CO₂ → C₆H₁₂O₆+ 6O₂
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Chloroplast
Organelle that preforms photosynthesis
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Thylakoid disk
membrane of the chloroplast folded up (inside the chloroplast), contain chlorophyll
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Thylakoid membrane
membrane in which pigments are embedded
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Granum
a stack of thylakoid disks (grana if plural) the unit that collects light
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Light dependent reactions
set of reactions in photosynthesis that use energy from light to produce ATP and NADPH
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Photosystems I and II
light-harvesting units of a chloroplast's thylakoid membrane
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electron acceptor molecule
A reactant that gains an electron and is reduced in a reduction-oxidation reaction.
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Electron transport chains
the series of molecules through which excited electrons are passed along a thylakoid membrane during light dependent reactions
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NADP+
carrier molecule that transfers high-energy electrons and other molecules
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NADPH
NADP+ carrying electrons and hydrogen (to the stroma for the Calvin Cycle during photosynthesis)
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In order o make up for "lost" electrons and hydrogen in LDR
H2O is broken down into hydrogen ions, oxygen, and electrons, which is also how plants produce oxygen
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Light Independent Reactions (Calvin Cycle)
use energy from the light dependent reactions to make sugars (happens in the stroma)
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Rubisco enzyme
Splits the 6 carbons into 2 groups of 3 carbon molecules (PGA)
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PGA
phosphoglycerate; a three-carbon molecule formed in the first step of the Calvin cycle
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What is added to the Calvin Cycle that was produced during LDR?
ATP and NADPH, making ADP and NADP+ after their use in the Calvin Cycle
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G3P
molecule that is made in the Calvin cycle; glucose is formed when two of these molecules combine
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Some G3P are recycled to make
RuBP to start over the Calvin Cycle
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RuBP
ribulose biphosphate; a five-carbon carbohydrate that combines with CO2 to form two molecules of PGA in the first step of the Calvin Cycle
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During photosynthesis, carbon in CO2 becomes
carbon in C6H12O6
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During photosynthesis, oxygen in CO2 becomes
oxygen in C6H12O6
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During photosynthesis, hydrogen in H2O becomes
hydrogen in C6H12O6
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During photosynthesis, oxygen in H2O becomes
oxygen in O2
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Cellular Respiration
Process that produces ATP by breaking down food molecules (specifically glucose)
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Formula for cellular respiration
C6H12O6 + O2 -> CO2 + H20
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All organisms perform
cellular respiration (or at least some steps)
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Heterotrophs
An organism that obtains its food by means of other organisms
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Three parts of cellular respiration
glycolysis, citric acid cycle, electron transport chain
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Anaerobic process
metabolic process that does not require oxygen
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Glycolysis
an anaerobic process, the splitting of sugar that occurs in the cytoplasm (performed by all organisms)
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Substrate-level phosphorylation
The formation of ATP by directly transferring a phosphate group to ADP from an intermediate substrate in catabolism.
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Product of glycolysis
2 pyruvate
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Net gain of ATP in glycolysis
2 ATP
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Electron Carriers of Cellular Respiration
NAD+ and FAD
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Aerobic process
a metabolic process that requires oxygen
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citric acid cycle
an aerobic process, the oxidizing of acetyl Co-A (modified pyruvate) into CO2, occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria
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Products of citric acid cycle
2 CO2, 1 ATP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2
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The Citric Acid Cycle takes ___ turns to make one glucose
two
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Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
uses the high-energy electrons from the NADH and FADH2 from the Citric Acid Cycle and glycolysis to convert ADP into ATP, occurs in the cristae of the mitochondria
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Oxygen is necessary to make
ATP
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The oxygen we breathe becomes ___ at the end of the ETC
H2O
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The carbon from the food we eat becomes___ at the end of the Citric Acid Cycle
CO2
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Fermentation
Returns NADH to NAD+, which is necessary for glycolysis to occur
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Anaerobic organisms must
perform glycolysis and fermentation to survive
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strict anaerobes
Organisms that can't survive in an atmosphere of oxygen