Lecture Notes Vocabulary Flashcards: History, Egypt, Near East, Scythians, Greece

Vocabulary cards covering key terms and concepts from lectures on early humans, Egypt, Near East, Scythians, and Greece, focusing on definitions and core ideas.

History

A never-ending conversation among the past, present, and future; history is interpretive, not just a static set of facts.

Historian

A person who locates and critically examines sources from the past to build arguments and narratives about history.

Think historically

Critical analysis and interpretation of evidence within the appropriate time/place context.

Primary sources

Direct evidence from the time period, categorized into natural world, human remains, archaeological findings, texts, and art/architecture.

Natural World (primary source)

Ice cores and other natural records that reveal past climate and atmospheric data.

Human Remains

Skeletons and other remains used to infer diet, health, and genetics.

Archaeological Findings

Artifacts and structures uncovered by archaeologists that reveal daily life, technology, and values.

Texts (primary source)

Written documents such as letters, legal codes, and inscriptions.

Art and Architecture (primary source)

Cultural expressions reflecting beliefs, social hierarchies, and technological advancements.

Change over time

The idea that things evolve or stay the same across time.

Context

Surrounding circumstances and conditions that shape events.

Causality

Relationships between causes and effects that explain why something happened.

Contingency

How events could have unfolded differently; alternative outcomes are possible.

Complexity

Multiple interacting factors and influences that shape events.

Out of Africa migration

Movement of Homo sapiens from Africa to other regions; first wave ~150k–200k years ago; major wave ~60k–70k years ago.

Homo sapiens appearance

Origin of modern humans around 150,000 years ago.

Radiocarbon dating

Dating method for organic materials up to about 70,000 years old.

K-Ar dating

Potassium-Argon dating used for dating older minerals; applicable to billions of years.

Luminescence dating

Dating of stone tools and pottery from about 1,000 to 1,000,000 years ago.

Proto-Indo-European (PIE)

Hypothetical ancestral language of many European and South Asian languages.

Kurgan Hypothesis

PIE spread from the Pontic-Caspian steppe by nomadic herders (6,000–5,000 years ago).

Anatolian Hypothesis

PIE spread from Anatolia (modern Turkey) with early farmers about 8,500 years ago.

Language Wars

Michael Balter’s article discussing competing hypotheses about PIE origins and spread.

Young-Earth Creationism

Belief that the Earth is only a few thousand years old.

Old-Earth Creationism

Creationist view that accommodates an ancient Earth.

Theistic Evolution

Belief that God works through evolutionary processes.

Archaic Period (Egypt)

3100–2660 BCE; early unification and foundations of Egyptian civilization.

Old Kingdom

2660–2180 BCE; pyramid age and centralized state.

Middle Kingdom

2080–1640 BCE; revival and consolidation of Egyptian state.

New Kingdom

1570–1070 BCE; imperial expansion and peak of Egyptian power.

First Intermediate Period

2180–2080 BCE; political fragmentation and instability.

Second Intermediate Period

1640–1570 BCE; interregnum with dynamic changes in power.

Third Intermediate Period

1070–656 BCE; continued regional fragmentation in Egypt.

Late Period

664–332 BCE; foreign influences and dynastic changes ending pre-Islamic era.

Ma'at

Egyptian concept of truth, justice, and cosmic order.

Amun

Major Egyptian deity associated with creation and hidden aspects of divinity.

Osiris

God of the afterlife and resurrection; husband of Isis.

Isis

Goddess of magic, motherhood, and fertility; wife of Osiris.

Horus

Sky god associated with kingship and the living pharaoh.

Pharaoh

The Egyptian king; ruler at the top of society with divine or semi-divine status.

Ziggurat

Terraced temple tower in Mesopotamian city-states; central religious structure.

Sumerian City-States

Independent city-states in southern Mesopotamia with kingship and temple-led governance.

Hammurabi

Babylonian king who unified southern Mesopotamia and codified laws.

Code of Hammurabi

One of the oldest law codes; preserved on a stele and reflects Babylonian society.

Neo-Assyrian Empire

Empire (mid- to late 1st millennium BCE) known for military power and iron weaponry.

Persian/Achaemenid Empire

Large empire (c. 559–330 BCE) founded by Cyrus the Great; often described as merciful and centralized.

Fertile Crescent

Crescent-shaped arc of fertile land including Mesopotamia and Levant, cradle of early civilizations.

Epic of Gilgamesh

Ancient Mesopotamian epic about Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the quest for immortality.

Gilgamesh

King of Uruk; two-thirds god, hero of the Epic of Gilgamesh.

Enkidu

Gilgamesh’s companion and foil, created by the gods.

Utnapishtim

Mortal who survived the Great Flood and gained immortality in the epic.

Ea

God who warns Gilgamesh about Ishtar’s wrath and other dangers.

Ishtar

Goddess of fertility who seeks to become Gilgamesh’s consort and incites divine wrath.

Rosetta Stone

Key to deciphering hieroglyphs; example of how objects can tell multiple stories.

Early Writing Tablet

3100 BCE tablet from Uruk showing beer distribution; demonstrates writing as administrative tool.

Ain Sakhri Lovers

9000 BCE calcite figurine, oldest known depiction of two people in a sexual act; marks sedentary transition.

Standard of Ur

2600–2400 BCE wooden box with War and Peace panels illustrating Sumerian life.

Minoan Bull-leaper

Bronze figurine from Crete depicting the bull-leaping sport in Minoan culture.

Gold Coin of Croesus

Lydian coin (Turkey, 1100–300 BCE) illustrating invention of standardized coinage.

Parthenon Centaur and Lapith

Parthenon sculpture fragment depicting mythic conflict between Centaurs and Lapiths.

Coin with Head of Alexander

Hellenistic coin from Lampsakos (300 BCE–AD 10) symbolizing Alexander the Great’s enduring influence.