USMDO Cell Biology & Genetics

1. Macromolecules 2. The Structures of the Cell 3. Cell Membrane 4. Passive and Active Transport 5. Metabolism and Enzymes 6. Cellular Respiration 7. Cell Signaling 8. Mitosis 9. Meiosis 10. Mendelian Genetics 11. Chromosomes 12. DNA 13. Replication 14. Transcription 15. Translation 16. Gene Regulation 17. Viruses 18. Bacteria 19. Biotechnology 20. Cell Death 21. Cancer 22. Stem Cells

Carbohydrate Monomer

Monosaccharides (Glucose, fructose)

Carbohydrate Polymer

Polysaccharides (Starch, glycogen, and cellulose)

Protein Monomer

Amino Acids

Protein Polymer

Proteins (Enzymes, Structural, Transport)

Lipid Monomer

Fatty Acid and Glycerol

Lipid Polymer

Triglyceride (Fats, Phospholipids and Steroids)

Saturated Fat

Type of lipid consisting of 3 fatty acid tails attached to a glycerol

Unsaturated Fat

Type of lipid consisting of 3 fatty acids tails attached to a glycerol. Fatty acid tail contains one or more double bonds, resulting in kinks in the structure that prevent tight packing.

Nucleic Acid Monomer

Nucleotide (Sugar + Phosphate + Nitrogenous base)

Nucleic Acid Polymer

DNA/RNA

Carbohydrates

Quick energy and structure

Contain Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen

Lipids

Long-term energy, membranes

Contain Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen

Nucleic Acids

Stores genetic information

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorous

Protein

Makes up enzymes, responsible for strucutre and transport

Contains Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen

Prokaryotic Cells

No nucleus

No membrane-bound organelles

Prokaryotic Cells examples

Bacteria, Archaea

Carbohydrate Monomer

Monosaccharides (Glucose, fructose)

Carbohydrate Polymer

Polysaccharides (Starch, glycogen, and cellulose)

Protein Monomer

Amino Acids

Protein Polymer

Proteins (Enzymes, Structural, Transport)

Lipid Monomer

Fatty Acid and Glycerol

Lipid Polymer

Triglyceride (Fats, Phospholipids and Steroids)

Saturated Fat

Type of lipid consisting of 3 fatty acid tails attached to a glycerol

Unsaturated Fat

Type of lipid consisting of 3 fatty acids tails attached to a glycerol. Fatty acid tail contains one or more double bonds, resulting in kinks in the structure that prevent tight packing.

Nucleic Acid Monomer

Nucleotide (Sugar + Phosphate + Nitrogenous base)

Nucleic Acid Polymer

DNA/RNA

Carbohydrates

Quick energy and structure

Contain Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen

Lipids

Long-term energy, membranes

Contain Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen

Nucleic Acids

Stores genetic information

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorous

Protein

Makes up enzymes, responsible for strucutre and transport

Contains Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen

Prokaryotic Cells

No nucleus

No membrane-bound organelles

Prokaryotic Cells examples

Bacteria, Archaea

Carbohydrate Monomer

Monosaccharides (Glucose, fructose)

Carbohydrate Polymer

Polysaccharides (Starch, glycogen, and cellulose)

Protein Monomer

Amino Acids

Protein Polymer

Proteins (Enzymes, Structural, Transport)

Lipid Monomer

Fatty Acid and Glycerol

Lipid Polymer

Triglyceride (Fats, Phospholipids and Steroids)

Saturated Fat

Type of lipid consisting of 3 fatty acid tails attached to a glycerol

Unsaturated Fat

Type of lipid consisting of 3 fatty acids tails attached to a glycerol. Fatty acid tail contains one or more double bonds, resulting in kinks in the structure that prevent tight packing.

Nucleic Acid Monomer

Nucleotide (Sugar + Phosphate + Nitrogenous base)

Nucleic Acid Polymer

DNA/RNA

Carbohydrates

Quick energy and structure

Contain Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen

Lipids

Long-term energy, membranes

Contain Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen

Nucleic Acids

Stores genetic information

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorous

Protein

Makes up enzymes, responsible for strucutre and transport

Contains Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen

Prokaryotic Cells

No nucleus

No membrane-bound organelles

Prokaryotic Cells examples

Bacteria, Archaea

Macromolecules

Large complex molecules essential for life, including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Eukaryotic Cells

Cells that contain a true nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.

Nucleus (Eukaryotic Cell)

Contains the cell's genetic material (DNA) organized into chromosomes; controls cell growth and reproduction.

Mitochondria

Site of cellular respiration; generates most of the cell's supply of ATP.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Network of membranes involved in protein and lipid synthesis. Rough ER has ribosomes (protein synthesis), Smooth ER synthesizes lipids and detoxifies.

Golgi Apparatus

Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for secretion or delivery to other organelles.

Cell (Plasma) Membrane

Selectively permeable barrier composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins (Fluid Mosaic Model); regulates passage of substances.

Passive Transport

Movement of substances across the cell membrane without the input of energy, down their concentration gradient (e.g., Diffusion, Facilitated Diffusion, Osmosis).

Active Transport

Movement of substances across the cell membrane requiring energy (ATP) to move against their concentration gradient, often through protein pumps.

Metabolism

The sum of all chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life (catabolism for breaking down, anabolism for building up).

Enzymes

Biological catalysts (proteins) that speed up the rate of biochemical reactions by lowering activation energy without being consumed in the process.

Cellular Respiration

Metabolic process converting glucose and oxygen into ATP, carbon dioxide, and water; occurs in glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

The primary energy currency of the cell, storing and transporting chemical energy within cells.

Cell Signaling

The process by which cells communicate with each other through chemical messengers, involving reception, transduction, and cellular response.

Mitosis

A type of cell division that results in two daughter cells each having the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent nucleus; for growth and repair.

Meiosis

A type of cell division that results in four daughter cells each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell, as in the production of gametes.

Mendelian Genetics

Principles describing how traits are inherited, based on Gregor Mendel's work on pea plants (e.g., Law of Segregation, Law of Independent Assortment).

Allele

Different forms of a gene occupying the same locus on a chromosome (e.g., A or a).

Genotype vs. Phenotype

Genotype is the genetic makeup of an organism (AA, Aa, aa), while phenotype is the observable physical or biochemical characteristics resulting from the genotype.

Chromosome

A thread-like structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

A double-helix nucleic acid polymer that carries the genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth, and reproduction of all known organisms and many viruses.

DNA Replication

The process by which DNA makes a copy of itself during cell division, using each original strand as a template (semi-conservative).

Transcription

The first step of gene expression where a segment of DNA is copied into RNA by the enzyme RNA polymerase.

Translation

The process in which ribosomes in the cytoplasm synthesize proteins after the process of transcription of DNA to RNA in the cell's nucleus.

Gene Regulation

Mechanisms by which cells increase or decrease the production of specific gene products (proteins or RNA) in response to internal or external signals.

Virus

A non-living infectious agent that can only replicate inside the living cells of other organisms, consisting of genetic material (DNA or RNA) enclosed in a protein capsid.

Bacteria (characteristics)

Single-celled prokaryotic organisms, lacking a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, typically having a cell wall and reproducing by binary fission.

Biotechnology

The application of biological processes, organisms, or systems to manufacture products or perform specific services (e.g., genetic engineering, PCR).

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death; a regulated process important for development, tissue homeostasis, and eliminating damaged or unwanted cells.

Cancer

A disease characterized by uncontrolled cell growth and division, often due to mutations in genes that regulate the cell cycle, leading to tumor formation.

Stem Cells

Undifferentiated cells that have the ability to self-renew and differentiate into various specialized cell types.

Fluid Mosaic Model

The model describing the cell membrane as a flexible layer made of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded and peripheral proteins that can move.

Simple Diffusion

Type of transport where molecules move directly through the lipid bilayer from high to low concentration.

Facilitated Diffusion

Type of passive transport that uses specific protein channels or carriers to move molecules across the membrane down their concentration gradient.

Osmosis

The diffusion of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane from an area of high water concentration (low solute) to an area of low water concentration (high solute).

Aquaporins

Protein channels specifically designed to facilitate the rapid movement of water across cell membranes.

Sodium-Potassium Pump

A common active transport pump that uses ATP to move 3 sodium ions (Na^+) out of the cell and 2 potassium ions (K^+) into the cell, against their concentration gradients.

Endocytosis

A process of cellular ingestion by which the plasma membrane folds inward to engulf substances, forming vesicles.

Exocytosis

A process by which cells release substances to the outside by the fusion of a vesicle with the plasma membrane.

Catabolism

Metabolic pathways that break down complex molecules into simpler ones, releasing energy.

Anabolism

Metabolic pathways that construct complex molecules from simpler ones, requiring energy.

Enzyme Active Site

The specific region on an enzyme where a substrate binds, leading to a chemical reaction.

Glycolysis

The initial stage of cellular respiration that occurs in the cytoplasm, breaking down glucose into two pyruvate molecules and producing 2 net ATP.

Krebs Cycle

Also known as the Citric Acid Cycle, this stage occurs in the mitochondrial matrix, completeing the breakdown of glucose derivatives and releasing CO_2 and electron carriers (NADH, FADH2).

Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

The final stage of cellular respiration, occurring on the inner mitochondrial membrane, where electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed along a chain, leading to the production of a large amount of ATP (~34) via chemiosmosis, with oxygen as the final electron acceptor.

Paracrine Signaling

Cell signaling that acts on nearby cells through the diffusion of local regulators.

Endocrine Signaling

Cell signaling that involves hormones traveling through the bloodstream to target cells far from the secreting cell.

Autocrine Signaling

Cell signaling where a cell secretes a chemical messenger that acts on the cell itself.