Week 2 & 3: Sociological Research Methods

empirical

things that can be observed through the use of the physical senses

normative

* what we perceive as normal or what we believe normal should be
* includes a morally-endorsed ideal

Max Weber’s inconvenient facts

pieces of evidence that contradict what you believe, or want to believe, about the world around you

ethnocentrism

the belief that the norms, values, ideology, customs, and traditions of one’s own culture or subculture are superior to those characterizing other cultural settings/groups

positive aspects of ethnocentrism

* can facilitate cohesion and continuity at all levels of social organization
* creates a high level of appreciation for one’s own culture which can be healthy
* creates a shared sense of community pride and connects people in a society, making it an interdependent structure

negative aspects of ethnocentrism

* see outsiders as immoral, inferior, backwards, threats to the cultural norm
* see own group standard as *the* standard to measure and critique
* can lead to atrocities by governments and the acceptance of atrocities by the masses

culture shock

feelings of anxiety and/or disorientation that occur when an individual encounters an unfamiliar culture or way of life

cultural relativism

* not judging outside cultures to our own in-culture standards of right or wrong, taboo, or normal
* key component: the concept that nobody has a perfectly neutral position

concept

a label that is applied to things with similar characteristics and/or attributes

construct

the words used to describe things that exist analytically but are not directly observable

hypothesis

to propose a relationship between two variables, particularly with directionality

theory

articulates a system of relationships between facts and suggests causes and effects emerging out of those relationships

operationalization

the process of transforming variable into precise definitions that are measurable and testable, creating operational definitions, and listing its attributes so that you can count the presence or absence of them in the real world

two rules for operationalizing

* the attributes list must be exhaustive: everything needs to fit in one category
* the attributes must be mutually exclusive

deductive approach

start with a theory, form a hypothesis, make empirical observations, and then analyze data to either confirm, reject, or modify the original theory

inductive approach

start with empirical observations and then work to come up with a theory

correlation

the relationship between two sets of variables used to describe or predict data in events

causation

when an observed event or action appears to have caused a second event or action

reverse causality

* when you believe that A is causing B, but B is actually causing A
* can lead to spurious relationships

spurious relationship

a false correlation between two variables that is actually caused by a third variable (confounding, lurking)

validity

the extent to which an instrument measures what it is intended to measure

reliability

the likelihood of getting the same or consistent results using the same measure

generalizability

the extent to which we can claim our findings inform us about a group larger than the one studied

literature review

provides a description, summary, and critical evaluation of sources in relation to the research problem

quantitative methodology

* positivist
* variables are operationalized numerically
* holds a linear path of logic

positivist

* concerned with the *factors* that influence social life
* the hypothesis predicts how one form of human behavior influences another

qualitative data collection methods

experiments, surveys/questionnaires, existing stats, content analysis

qualitative methodology

* interpretivist
* concepts are in the forms of themes, motifs, or categories
* hard data is collected through words, symbols, actions, and lived experiences

interpretivist

* concerned with *meanings* attached to behaviors of social actors
* seeks to understand social worlds from the point of view of participants, leading to in-depth knowledge

qualitative data collection methods

field research, interviews, observations, historical comparative methods, reviewing archives, content analysis

survey

* a series of questions asked of a number of people
* involved open and close-ended questions

observations

complete participant, complete observer, participant observer, interviews

unobtrusive data collection

artifacts, secondary data, historical methods, comparative research methods

triangulation

a research strategy that helps zero in in social phenomena using multiple methods

informed consent

consent that is obtained *after* the participants have been told about the research and its possible benefits and harms

debriefing

* when the subject is provided opportunity to discuss details of the research with the researcher
* occurs *at the end* of participation in the study and details if deception was used and the necessity for it

institutional review board (IRB)

faculty and community members that examine research plans to ensure the researcher(s) who designed the study have given proper consideration of the possible risks/benefits of the study