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Sense

All elements contained in our conventional understanding of a concept associated with a word.

Reference

The use of a word in its conventional sense to refer to an object in the real world or a possible world of fiction.

Intension

Equals the 'sense' of a word; contains all semantic features that make up a dictionary definition; a word's abstract/systematic meaning.

Extension

All the things a word can point to in real life—some words refer to just a few items, others to many.

e.g Word: “Fruit”

• Extension: All individual fruits in the world: apples, bananas, cherries, mangoes, etc.

Semantic Features(Decomposition)

The small bits of meaning that add up to a word’s full definition. Words are similar when they share features and different when they don’t.

Word Meanings as Networks

In language use and in our mind different words are repeatedly connected and form networks of associations.

Connotation

Conventional and culturally established individual associations of a word.

Denotation

Core meaning, intensional + extensional meaning, sense (what it means) + reference(what it points to).. The dictionary defenition.

Connotation

Peripheral/additional meanings (i.e., contextual, emotional, evaluative, stylistic meanings. The deeper meaning- what we associate with the word. e.g The rose - love, beauty, or passion.

Denotation and Connotation (Synonyms)

>> Some word have the same general sense (denota&on) but different connota&ons.

>> naked/nude (adj.) DENOTATION: not covered by clothing

naked – CONNOTATION technical (animal/plants),

figura=ve (naked eye) nude – CONNOTATION people / art / films / law

Sense Relations;

① SYNONYMY/SYNONYMS

②ANTONYMY/ANTONYMS

③ HYPERONYMY/HYPO-HYPER-NYMS

④ MERONYMY/MERO-HOLO-NYMS

⑤ POLYSEMY/POLYSEMOUS WORDS

⑥HOMONYMY/HOMONYMS

Synonymy

Word relationship with nearly/quasi identical meanings

Antonymy

Word relationship with opposite/opposed meanings

Hyperonymy/Hypo-Hyper-nyms

Word relationship of super-/subordinated meanings

“animal” is a hypernym of “dog.” - hyponym

Meronymy/ Mero-Holo-nyms

Word relationship of part/whole meanings.

Example: “wheel” - meronym of “car holonym.

Polysemy/ Polysemous words

One word - various senses.Various senses of one word are semantically related.

Homonymy

Two formally identical words - different meanings.

Homophones – Same sound, different meaning (and sometimes spelling)
Example: flower (plant) / flour (used in baking)

Homographs – Same spelling, different meaning (may sound the same or different)

Modelling sentence meaning

• The verb carries the main meaning.

• specific partners of verbs/verb arguments.

• valency.

Argument Structure

The pattern of syntactic and semantic roles that verbs take in a sentence, determining how many and what types of noun phrases (arguments) are needed for the verb to express a complete thought.

Thematic(Semantic) roles

Specifies the semantic function of an argument in relation to the verb.

Semiotics

The study of language as a sign system.

NOTIONS ON LANGUAGE

>> SPECIFICALLY HUMAN

>> NON-INSTINCTIVE / CONSCIOUS METHOD OF COMMUNICATION

>> SYMBOLIC

>> COMPLEX FUNCTIONALITY

Properties of Natural (Human) Languages

① ARBITRARY

② DISPLACED

③DUAL

④PRODUCTIVE

⑤REFLEXIVE

⑥CULTURALLY TRANSMITTED

Arbitrary

Signs (words) are unmotivated and abstract. There’s no natural connection between a word’s form (its sounds or letters) and what it means. The link is purely by social agreement (e.g., nothing about the sounds “t‑r‑e‑e” inherently resembles the plant).

Displaced

Words can talk about items not present or fictional.

Dual

Words pattern on two levels: meaningless unit (sounds (like b, a, t) that have no meaning on their own)

and meaningful unit (when those sounds are combined into words (like bat), they create meaning)

Productive

Speakers create new expressions and utterances.

Reflexive

Language can be used to talk about itself.

Culturally Transmitted

Language is a social convention that is learned.

General Functions of Language (HALLIDAY)

① INSTRUMENTAL

②REGULATORY

③ INTERACTIONAL

④ PERSONAL

⑤REPRESENTATIONAL

⑥HEURISTIC

⑦IMAGINATIVE

Instrumental Function

Expressing a need (e.g., 'I want…').

Regulatory Function

Influencing someone else's behavior (e.g., 'Do as I tell you').

Interactional Function

Developing social relationships (e.g., 'me and you').

Personal Function

Expressing preferences and opinions (e.g., 'here I come').

Representational Function

Exchanging facts and information (e.g., 'this is what it's like').

Heuristic Function

Exploring the environment, asking questions (e.g., 'I don't understand this').

Imaginative Function

Playing and storytelling (e.g., 'Let me tell you a story/joke').

Meta-Functions (HALLIDAY)

1 EXPERIENTIAL FUNCTION

2 INTERPERSONAL FUNCTION

3 TEXTUAL FUNCTION

Experiential Function

Language expresses ideas based on speakers' experience.

Interpersonal Function

Language establishes social relations and influences behaviors.

Textual Function

Language builds connections and structure between ideas.

Language as a Set of Signs (Saussure)

Binary combinations of form (letters/sounds) and meaning (concepts).

Words are: 1 arbitrary, 2 conventional, 3 associative

Words are

: 1 arbitrary,

2 conventional (Words are based on agreed-upon usage.)

3 associative (Words are linked to concepts.)

Signs and their Relations (CHARLES SANDERS PEIRCE)

In meaning-making, signs are related to other elements: 1 a concept (INTERPRE- TANT), 2 an object in the world (OBJECT/REFERENT)

Interpretant

A concept associated with a sign.

Object/Referent

An object in the world to which a sign refers.

Semiotic/Semantic Triangle (MORRIS)

Meaning emerges from a triangular relation between 1 term (WORD), 2 concept (MENTAL REPRESENTATION), and 3 referent (OBJECT)

Valency

The capacity of a sign to evoke or connect to multiple meanings and associations.

Intransitive

Verbs with one argument (e.g., “She sleeps”).

transitive

Verbs with two arguments(e.g., “He eats an apple”).

ditransitive

Verbs with three arguments (e.g., “She gave him a gift”)

Icon

A sign that resembles its object/referent (similarity).

Index

An object/referent causes a sign (logic-experience).

Symbol

No relation between sign/object (arbitrary).

Speech Circuit

How communicators exchange signs.Communicators exchange signs: A produces a sign, B receives the sign Phona*on (speaking) and audi*on (listening) alternate Communica*on involves a re-coding of signs from form to meaning (audi*on) and from meaning to form (phona*on)

Organon Model KARL BÜHLER (

Relationship between signs and elements of a communicative situation.The 'organon' model shows the rela*onship between signs and elements of a communica*ve situa*on: 1 sender, 2 receiver, 3 context (physical world) The model claims three sign func*ons: 1 expression (AUSDRUCK), 2 appeal (APPELL), 3 representa*on (DARSTELLUNG)