Psychology: Key Concepts, Research Methods, and Neural Foundations

Psychology

Scientific study of thought, behavior, and emotion

Why Study Psychology

Common sense and popular wisdom can be misleading

Hindsight Bias

Overestimating ability to have predicted an outcome

Scientific Method

Systematic process for answering questions using data

Empiricism

Testing ideas with data

Research Question

Question guiding the research

Hypothesis

Testable prediction

Operational Definition

Exact procedure used to measure a variable

Case Study

In-depth study of one individual or small group

Case Study Disadvantage

Limited generalizability

Observation

Systematic measurement of behavior

Observer Bias

Observer expectations influence results

Survey

Method of asking people questions

Response Bias

Answers do not reflect true beliefs

Random Sampling

Everyone has equal chance of selection

Correlation

Relationship between two variables

Positive Correlation

Variables move in same direction

Negative Correlation

Variables move in opposite directions

Correlation Coefficient (r)

Strength of relationship from -1 to +1

Correlation Does Not Equal Causation

Correlation does not prove cause

Experiment

Manipulation of one variable to observe effect

Independent Variable

Variable manipulated by researcher

Dependent Variable

Outcome variable

Confounding Variable

Uncontrolled variable influencing results

Placebo Effect

Improvement due to belief in treatment

Placebo Control Group

Group receiving inert treatment

Expectancy Effect

Researcher unintentionally influences outcome

Single-Blind Study

Participants unaware of group assignment

Double-Blind Study

Both participants and researchers unaware

Generalizability

Ability to apply findings broadly

Replication

Repeating a study to confirm results

Biological Perspective

Behavior explained by brain and nervous system

Evolutionary Perspective

Behavior shaped by natural selection

Behavioral Genetics

Gene and environment contributions to behavior

Psychoanalytic Perspective

Unconscious influences behavior

Behavioral Perspective

Learning via reinforcement and punishment

Cognitive Perspective

Mental processes influence behavior

Sociocultural Perspective

Social and cultural forces shape behavior

Neuron

Specialized cell transmitting signals

Dendrite

Receives signals

Cell Body (Soma)

Contains DNA

Axon

Sends signals

Glial Cells

Support neurons

Myelin Sheath

Speeds signal transmission

Blood-Brain Barrier

Protects brain from toxins

Action Potential

Electrical impulse in neuron

Threshold

Minimum charge to fire

All-or-None

Response fires fully or not at all

Synapse

Gap between neurons

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers

Reuptake

Reabsorption of neurotransmitters

Excitatory Signals

Increase firing likelihood

Inhibitory Signals

Decrease firing likelihood

Acetylcholine

Muscle movement, learning, memory

Endorphins

Pain reduction, pleasure

Dopamine

Movement, reward, learning

Serotonin

Mood, sleep, appetite

Glutamate

Excitatory learning neurotransmitter

GABA

Inhibitory calming neurotransmitter

Epinephrine

Stress response

Norepinephrine

Stress response

Agonist

Increases neurotransmitter activity

Antagonist

Decreases neurotransmitter activity

Motor Neurons

Brain to muscles

Sensory Neurons

Senses to brain

Central Nervous System

Brain and spinal cord

Spinal Reflex

Automatic response

Peripheral Nervous System

Nerves outside CNS

Somatic Nervous System

Voluntary movement

Autonomic Nervous System

Automatic functions

Sympathetic Nervous System

Fight or flight

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Rest and digest

Endocrine System

Hormone communication system

Hypothalamus

Controls pituitary

Pituitary Gland

Master gland

Adrenal Glands

Mood, energy, stress

Pineal Gland

Circadian rhythm

EEG

Measures electrical activity

PET Scan

Shows biochemical brain activity

CAT Scan

X-ray brain image

MRI

Magnetic brain image

fMRI

Measures brain activity during tasks

Medulla

Life-sustaining functions

Pons

Sleep and arousal

Reticular Formation

Alertness and attention

Thalamus

Sensory relay

Cerebellum

Balance and coordination

Limbic System

Emotion and memory

Amygdala

Fear and aggression

Hypothalamus

Hormones and reward

Hippocampus

Memory formation

Cerebral Cortex

Higher thinking

Frontal Lobe

Planning, personality

Motor Cortex

Voluntary movement

Broca's Area

Speech production

Broca's Aphasia

Speech difficulty

Parietal Lobe

Touch processing

Somatosensory Cortex

Body sensation

Occipital Lobe

Vision

Visual Cortex

Visual processing