Cambridge International AS/A Level Psychology - Research Methodology

A complete set of 100 question-and-answer flashcards covering research methods, experimental designs, Randomized Control Trials, self-reports, case studies, observations, correlations, longitudinal studies, methodological concepts, ethics, and data analysis for AS/A Level Psychology.

How do experimenters draw conclusions about cause and effect in an experiment?

By comparing data collected from two or more experimental groups/conditions with data collected in a control group/condition.

What is the primary purpose of control groups or control conditions in an experiment?

They provide baseline data against which experimental conditions are compared.

Which variable is manipulated or changed by the experimenter in an experiment?

The independent variable.

Which variable is measured in an experiment to test the effect of the manipulation?

The dependent variable.

Under what circumstance can cause and effect be inferred in an experiment?

When other variables that could affect the dependent variable are controlled (kept the same for both groups/conditions).

Why are standardized procedures and standardized instructions used in experiments?

To give all participants the exact same experience.

What characterizes the setting of a laboratory experiment?

A setting maintained where the experimenter has a high level of control, such as regulated temperature, controlled lighting, and managed noise.

What is an ethical strength associated with laboratory experiments?

Participants give a degree of consent, and the right to withdraw is often given.

What validity weakness arises from artificial conditions in a laboratory experiment?

Artificial conditions (setting and task) can produce unnatural behaviour, lowering ecological validity.

What reliability strength is present in laboratory experiments?

Procedures involve standardised instructions and procedures, giving consistency.

What validity weakness occurs when environmental features reveal a laboratory study's aim?

Demand characteristics, where participants act in a way they feel the researchers want them to.

What validity strength results from the high level of control in laboratory experiments?

A high level of control allows cause and effect to be shown.

What ethical weakness may be employed in laboratory experiments to protect validity?

There may be deception regarding the aim of the study.

In Pozzulo et al. (line-ups), what were participants asked to do in a controlled setting?

Observe video clips in a controlled setting before identifying the target person in different types of line-up.

How did Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams) manipulate sleep conditions in their laboratory experiment?

Participants slept in a controlled setting and were awoken in either REM sleep or NREM sleep.

How was interpersonal distance measured using CID in Perry et al.'s laboratory experiment?

Participants indicated when they wanted the person/object to stop, receiving a percentage score of remaining distance from total distance ($0 = \text{figures touching}$, $100 = \text{furthest distance}$).

Where do field experiments take place?

In natural settings, such as streets or workplaces.

Why is it difficult to draw firm conclusions from field experiments?

Uncontrolled situational variables make controls difficult to implement in public/natural settings.

What validity strength do field experiments have regarding participant awareness?

Participants do not know they are taking part, so they are less likely to show demand characteristics.

What ethical weakness is inherent in field experiments?

Participants often do not know they are taking part, removing their right to withdraw and making debriefing often impossible.

What validity strength is provided by conducting research in a natural environment?

High ecological validity because participants are in their everyday environment.

What reliability weakness affects field experiments?

There is less control over extraneous variables, making research difficult to replicate.

Where did Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans) conduct their field experiment and what was manipulated?

On an express train between two New York stations, manipulating the type of victim and whether help was offered by a confederate.

What is meant by an experimental design?

How participants are allocated to groups/conditions of the independent variable.

How are participants allocated in an independent measures design?

Each participant takes part in only one group/condition of the independent variable.

What validity strength does independent measures design have regarding participant testing effects?

There are no order effects (such as fatigue, boredom, or practice effects) because participants take part in only one condition.

What validity weakness exists regarding sample size in an independent measures design?

More participants are needed to gather data.

Why is there less chance of demand characteristics in an independent measures design?

Participants experience only one condition and are less likely to guess the aim.

What validity weakness is present in independent measures designs regarding individual differences?

There is no control for participant variables (for example, participants in one group may naturally be better at the task).

How can participant variables be eliminated in an independent measures design?

By randomly allocating participants to conditions, such as tossing a coin or using a computer generator.

How were participants allocated to conditions in Andrade (doodling)?

Participants were randomly allocated to either the doodle or non-doodle condition.

How are participants allocated in a repeated measures design?

Each participant takes part in all conditions of the independent variable.

What validity strength does a repeated measures design have concerning participant variables?

Participant variables are controlled because the same people perform in both conditions.

What practical advantage does a repeated measures design offer when participant recruitment is difficult?

Fewer participants are needed, which is useful if samples are limited.

What validity weakness can occur in repeated measures designs due to repeated testing?

Order effects can occur, and chances of demand characteristics are increased.

How can order effects be eliminated in a repeated measures design?

By counterbalancing conditions, testing each condition first in equal amounts (half experience condition A then B, half experience B then A).

How was a repeated measures design used in Perry et al. (personal space)?

All participants were tested both with and without oxytocin.

In Hassett et al., how was an independent measures design used?

To compare male rhesus monkeys with female rhesus monkeys.

How are participants allocated in a matched pairs design?

Participants are matched for variables that could affect results, and then each participant takes part in only one condition of the independent variable.

What validity strength does a matched pairs design share with an independent measures design?

There are no problems with order effects.

What practical weakness is associated with conducting a matched pairs design?

It can be difficult (and time-consuming) to find and match participants.

On what variable did Bandura et al. (aggression) match children across conditions?

On pre-existing levels of aggression.

In Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test), who were matched on IQ in Group 4?

$14$ individuals from the general population were matched on IQ with the AS or HFA participants in Group 1.

Why are Randomized Control Trials (RCTs) referred to as the 'gold standard' in clinical research?

They use a variety of techniques to increase validity when testing a new drug, treatment, or intervention.

How are participants assigned to groups in a Randomized Control Trial?

Randomly allocated to either the experimental condition (real drug/intervention) or control condition (placebo drug/intervention).

What is administered to participants in the control group of an RCT?

A placebo treatment with no active ingredients.

What defines a single-blind design in a Randomized Control Trial?

Participants are not informed of which drug or condition they have been given (real drug or placebo).

What is the placebo effect in clinical trials?

When participants in placebo control groups experience significant improvement over time despite receiving no active ingredients.

What defines a double-blind design in a Randomized Control Trial?

Both participants and researchers (who measure symptom severity) are unaware of whether participants are in the placebo or treatment group.

What validity strength is gained by using a Randomized Control Trial?

Increased objectivity as experimenter bias and demand characteristics are reduced.

What ethical weakness arises from single-blind designs in Randomized Control Trials?

Valid informed consent is not possible because it relies on participants not knowing which condition they are in.

What ethical weakness exists for participants assigned to the control group in an RCT?

Participants assigned to the control group do not have access to treatments that could improve their wellbeing.

What purpose do self-report methods serve in psychology?

They allow participants to respond to questions about their beliefs and opinions, and discuss their behaviours.

What is a key sampling strength of questionnaires?

Questionnaires can obtain views from a large sample.

What is a data weakness of written questionnaires?

Participants may not elaborate on answers when writing, limiting depth of the data.

What occurs when questionnaire participants give socially desirable answers?

They present themselves in a favorable light rather than reflecting their true views or beliefs.

What are closed questions in a self-report instrument?

Questions that offer pre-determined answers for the participant to choose from.

Give an example of a category choice question format.

Asking 'How many times do you doodle per week?' with choices $1-5$, $6-10$, $11-15$, $16+$.

What is a Likert or rating scale?

A scale where participants circle or tick a response to show the extent to which they agree with a statement (e.g., $1 = \text{Completely disagree}$ to $5 = \text{Completely agree}$).

What is the purpose of forced/fixed-choice scales?

They do not allow answers like 'unsure/undecided' and force the participant to make a response.

What type of data is collected using closed questions, and how can it be visually displayed?

Quantitative data, which can be analyzed (mean, median, range) and displayed visually using a bar chart.

What validity weakness is associated with closed questions?

A limited choice of categories can reduce validity as participants may not freely express their opinions.

What defines open questions in a self-report method?

Questions allowing participants to express opinions freely without pre-determined responses, often using 'why', 'describe', and 'how'.

What is a strength of open questions regarding data quality?

Data is qualitative, giving more insight and allowing researchers to understand the complexity of an issue.

What is a weakness of open questions regarding data analysis?

Data is harder to analyze and may be open to interpretation.

What is a weakness of online questionnaire distribution compared to in-person distribution?

Online distribution only targets those online, while in-person limits the sample to those available at the time.

What defines a structured interview?

Fixed questions are pre-prepared and every participant receives the same questions in the same order.

What is the main strength and weakness of structured interviews?

Strength: standardised format increases reliability; Weakness: does not allow participants to elaborate on interesting answers.

What defines an unstructured interview?

There is no pre-preparation; questions are asked depending on the direction in which the discussion goes.

What defines a semi-structured interview?

An interview combining some structured questions and some unstructured questions.

What specific interview schedule did Saavedra and Silverman use with the nine-year-old boy and his mother?

A semi-structured interview using the Anxiety Disorders Inventory Schedule.

What validity advantage do face-to-face interviews have over telephone interviews?

Researchers can gather non-verbal communication (gestures, posture, facial expressions), providing emotional cues.

What weakness increases in interviews because participants interact directly with an interviewer?

An increased likelihood of socially desirable answers as participants may fear being judged.

What does the term 'psychometric' literally mean?

'Measure of mind'.

What are psychometric tests designed to measure?

Individual differences, such as personality, aptitude, knowledge, or skills.

What is a ceiling effect in psychometric testing?

When the majority of scores are high because the test is too easy, preventing higher differentiation among participants.

What is a floor effect in psychometric testing?

When everyone receives a very low score because the test is too hard, lowering validity as participants cannot be ranked.

Which psychometric test was used by Perry et al. to measure empathy dimensions?

The Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI).

What is a case study?

A detailed investigation involving a single 'unit': one individual or a group/organisation of people.

Why are case studies frequently categorized as longitudinal studies?

Data is gathered over an extended period of time.

What is method triangulation in case studies, and why is it used?

Using multiple data gathering techniques (interviews, observations, psychometrics) to reduce researcher bias and increase validity.

What validity weakness affects case studies due to the close relationship between researcher and participant?

Researcher bias can occur as they work closely with the participant, resulting in less objectivity.

Why do case studies lack reliability?

They are detailed analyses of one individual or small group and are difficult to replicate.

What is the difference between overt and covert observations?

In overt observations, participants know they are being observed; in covert observations, they do not know.

What is an ethical advantage of overt observation over covert observation?

Overt observations are more ethical because participants know they are being observed, avoiding deception.

What validity advantage does covert observation have over overt observation?

Covert observations avoid demand characteristics as participants do not know they are being observed.

What defines a participant observation?

When the observer becomes part of the community or group of people they wish to observe.

What defines a structured observation?

An observation using pre-determined behavioural checklists and tallies established before research begins.

How is inter-rater reliability assessed in structured observations?

By checking the extent to which two or more independent observers agree on the recorded observations using the same checklist.

What is the difference between naturalistic and controlled observations?

Naturalistic observations take place in real-world settings, whereas controlled observations take place in laboratory settings.

How did Bandura et al. observe children covertly in a controlled setting?

Through a one-way mirror in a laboratory setting using a structured behavioural checklist.

What observation features were used in Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans)?

Covert, participant, structured observation in a naturalistic setting on a subway train.

What do correlational studies investigate?

The relationship between two co-variables without manipulating an independent variable.

What defines a positive correlation?

A relationship where the scores of co-variables move in the same direction (both increase or both decrease together).

What defines a negative correlation?

A relationship where the scores of co-variables move in opposite directions (as one increases, the other decreases).

What correlation did Baron-Cohen et al. find between Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) and Revised Eyes Test scores?

A negative correlation (the higher the AQ score, the lower the score on the Revised Eyes Test).

What strength of correlation is indicated by a coefficient score of $+0.75$ or $-0.75$?

A strong correlation.

Why cannot causality be assumed from a correlational study?

Correlations show relationships but not why they occur, and unmeasured third variables may influence the relationship.

What key validity advantage do longitudinal designs have over cross-sectional designs?

They do not have participant variables because the exact same group of individuals is followed over time.

At what probability level ($p\text{-value}$) do researchers reject the null hypothesis in inferential statistics?

When the $p\text{-value}$ is less than $0.05$ ($1$ in $20$).