Unit 5: Cognitive Psychology

Modules 31-36; 60-64

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

encoding

the process of getting information into the memory system - for example, by extracting meaning

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

parallel processing

sorting through many aspects of a problem simultaneously

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

short-term memory

activated cache that holds a few items briefly, such as digits of a phone number while calling, before the information is stored or forgotten

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

explicit memories

retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare” (also called declarative memory)

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious work

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

implicit memories

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection (also called nondeclarative memory)

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

semantic memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge

episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process for storage explicit memories of facts and events

memory consolidation

the neural storage of a long-term memory

flashbulb memories

a clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response

encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

mood congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one’s past

proactive interference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information

retroactive interference

the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information

reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

misinformation effect

occurs when misleading information has distorted one’s memory of an event

source amnesia (source misattribution)

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined

deja vu

the eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of n earlier experience

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

concepts

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category; provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories

creativity

the ability to produce new and valuable ideas

convergent thinking

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

divergent thinking

expanding the number of possible problem solutions; associated with creative thinking

algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently

insight

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

fixation

in cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem-solving

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

representative heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to match particular prototypes

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their accessibility in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common

overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct; to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments

belief perseverance

clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is worded can significantly affect decisions and judments

phoneme

in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

morpheme

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)

grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

semantics

a language’s set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds

syntax

set of rules for combining words into sensible sentences

telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram (“go car”) using mostly nouns and verbs

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area or to Wernicke’s area

linguistic determinism

language controls the way we think and interpret the world around us

linguistic influence

the idea that language affects thought

general intelligence

According to Charles Spearman, underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person’s total score

savant syndrome

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in cognitive ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

intelligence test

a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores

achievement test

a test designed to assess what a person has learned

aptitude test

a test designed to predict a person’s future performance

mental age

a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the level of performance typically associated with children of a certain chronological age

standardization

defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group

reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test, or on retesting

validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to

content validity

the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest

predictive validity

the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior

crystallized intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

fluid intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease with age, especially during late adulthood

heritability

the proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes