Studied by 93 people
memory
the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
recall
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test
recognition
a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again
encoding
the process of getting information into the memory system - for example, by extracting meaning
storage
the process of retaining encoded information over time
retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
parallel processing
sorting through many aspects of a problem simultaneously
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
short-term memory
activated cache that holds a few items briefly, such as digits of a phone number while calling, before the information is stored or forgotten
long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences
working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
explicit memories
retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare” (also called declarative memory)
effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious work
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings
implicit memories
retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection (also called nondeclarative memory)
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning
shallow processing
encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words
deep processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention
semantic memory
explicit memory of facts and general knowledge
episodic memory
explicit memory of personally experienced events
hippocampus
a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process for storage explicit memories of facts and events
memory consolidation
the neural storage of a long-term memory
flashbulb memories
a clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
long-term potentiation (LTP)
an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response
encoding specificity principle
the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it
mood congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one’s past
proactive interference
the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information
retroactive interference
the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information
reconsolidation
a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again
misinformation effect
occurs when misleading information has distorted one’s memory of an event
source amnesia (source misattribution)
faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined
deja vu
the eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of n earlier experience
cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
concepts
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
prototype
a mental image or best example of a category; provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories
creativity
the ability to produce new and valuable ideas
convergent thinking
narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
divergent thinking
expanding the number of possible problem solutions; associated with creative thinking
algorithm
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem
heuristic
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently
insight
a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
fixation
in cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem-solving
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
intuition
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning
representative heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to match particular prototypes
availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their accessibility in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common
overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct; to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments
belief perseverance
clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is worded can significantly affect decisions and judments
phoneme
in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
morpheme
in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)
grammar
in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others
semantics
a language’s set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds
syntax
set of rules for combining words into sensible sentences
telegraphic speech
early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram (“go car”) using mostly nouns and verbs
aphasia
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area or to Wernicke’s area
linguistic determinism
language controls the way we think and interpret the world around us
linguistic influence
the idea that language affects thought
general intelligence
According to Charles Spearman, underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test
factor analysis
a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person’s total score
savant syndrome
a condition in which a person otherwise limited in cognitive ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing
emotional intelligence
the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions
intelligence test
a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores
achievement test
a test designed to assess what a person has learned
aptitude test
a test designed to predict a person’s future performance
mental age
a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the level of performance typically associated with children of a certain chronological age
standardization
defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group
reliability
the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test, or on retesting
validity
the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to
content validity
the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest
predictive validity
the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior
crystallized intelligence
our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age
fluid intelligence
our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease with age, especially during late adulthood
heritability
the proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes
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