APES formulas/vocab

Lincoln-Peterson Index

N=M*S/R

Population growth rate

(births-deaths)/total population size

(x100 for percentage)

1 calorie

4.184J

1 BTU

1.05 kJ

1 therm

100,000 BTU

Power

Energy/Time

1 watt

1 J/s

Rule of 70

70/Growth Rate

doubling time of a population

Efficiency

Energy Output/Energy Input x 100

percentage of energy that is converted from one form to another.

Gross Primary Productivity

rate of photosynthesis by plants

Net Primary Productivity

GPP - Respiration

Energy stored as biomass, available to consumers

half life

ln 2 (0.7)/decay constant

Respiration

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O

Combustion

Hydrocarbons (CxHy) + O2 → CO2 + H2O

Photosynthesis

6CO2 + 6H2O + sunlight → C6H12O6 + 6O2

Ocean Acidification

CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ H⁺ + HCO3^-

Photochemical Smog Formation

NOx + VOCs + heat + sunlight → smog

Nitrogen oxide is produced early in the day.

Ozone concentrations peak in the afternoon and are higher in the summer b/c produced by reactions between oxygen and sunlight.

Stratospheric Ozone Depletion

O3 + Cl → O2 + ClO

Nitrogen fixation

Atmospheric nitrogen → ammonia (NH₃) or nitrate ions (NO₃^-), biologically usable forms of nitrogen.

Nitrification

Ammonia (NH₃) → nitrite (NO₂^-) and nitrate (NO₃^-), most useful forms to plants

Assimilation

Plants absorb ammonia (NH₃), ammonium ions (NH₃⁺), nitrate ions (NO₃^-) through their roots.

Ammonification

Decomposing bacteria convert dead organisms/wastes (nitrates, uric acid, proteins, and nucleic acids) → NH₃ and NH₄⁺ (biologically useful forms)

Denitrification

Anaerobic bacteria convert NH₃ → nitrites (NO₂^-), nitrates (NO₃^-), nitrogen gas (N₂), nitrous oxide (N₂O) to continue the cycle

Nitrogen cycle

Phosphorus cycle

Furrow irrigation

cutting furrows between crop rows and filling them w/water

inexpensive, but ~1/3 of the

water is lost to evaporation and runoff.

Flood irrigation

flooding an agricultural field w/water

~ 20% of the water is lost to evaporation and runoff

can lead to waterlogging of the soil

Spray irrigation

pumping ground water into spray nozzles across an agricultural field.

more efficient than flood/furrow irrigation, only 1/4 or less of the water lost to evaporation or runoff

more expensive, requires energy to run

Drip irrigation

use perforated hoses to release small amounts of water to plant roots.

most efficient, only about 5% of water lost to evaporation and runoff.

expensive → not often used.

CAFOS

Concentrated animal feeding operation

used as a way to quickly get livestock ready for slaughter

crowded, animals are fed grains or feed not as suitable as grass

generate a large amount of organic waste → can contaminate ground/surface water

less expensive than other methods

Surface mining

removal of large portions of soil and rock (overburden) in order to

access the ore underneath.

Ex: strip mining removes the vegetation from an area → more susceptible to erosion

Mining impacts

wastes/slag: soil and rocks that are moved to gain access to the ore, tailings that remain when the minerals have been removed from the ore

As coal reserves get smaller, need to subsurface mining, which is very expensive.

3 types of coal

lignite, bituminous, anthracite

Crude oil

recovered from tar sands (combination of clay, sand, water, bitumen)

Cogeneration

when a fuel source is used to generate both useful heat and electricity.

Nuclear power

generated through fission: atoms of Uranium-235 stored in fuel rods are split into smaller parts after being struck by a neutron

Hydrogen fuel cell

use hydrogen as fuel, combining the hydrogen and oxygen in the air to form water and release energy (electricity) in the process. Water is the product (emission) of a fuel cell.

Clean Air Act

EPA regulated the use of lead, particularly in fuels, which dramatically decreased the amount of lead in the atmosphere

Volatile Organic Compounds

evaporate or sublimate at room temperature.

ex: formaldehyde, gasoline

thermal inversion

normal temperature gradient in the atmosphere is altered as the air temp at the Earth’s surface is cooler than the air at higher altitudes.

traps pollution close to the ground, esp smog + particulates.

indoor air pollutants

asphyxiant: Carbon monoxide

particulates: asbestos, dust, and smoke

natural source: radon, mold, and dust

human-made: insulation, VOCs, formaldehyde, lead

combustion: carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, particulates, and tobacco smoke.

Radon-222

naturally occurring radioactive gas produced by the decay of uranium found in some rocks and soils

can infiltrate homes as it moves up through the soil and enters homes via the basement or cracks in the walls or foundation.

also dissolved in groundwater that enters homes through a well.

can lead to radon-induced lung cancer

vapor recovery nozzle

device on a gasoline pump that prevents fumes from escaping into the atmosphere when fueling a motor vehicle.

catalytic converter

device for internal combustion engines that converts pollutants (CO, NOx, and hydrocarbons) in exhaust into less harmful molecules (CO2, N2, O2, and H2O).

Wet and dry scrubbers

devices that remove particulates and/or gases from industrial exhaust streams

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs)

do not easily break down in the environment because they are synthetic, carbon-based molecules (such as DDT and PCBs)

soluble in fat → accumulate in organisms’ fatty tissues

Primary treatment

physical removal of large objects

often via screens and grates, followed by the settling of solid waste in the bottom of a tank.

Secondary treatment

bacteria break down organic matter into CO2 and inorganic sludge which settles in the bottom of a tank.

The tank is aerated to increase the rate at which the bacteria break down the organic matter.

Tertiary treatment

use of ecological or chemical processes to remove any pollutants left in the water after primary and secondary treatment.

lethal dose 50% (LD₅₀)

dose of a chemical that is lethal to 50% of the population of a particular species.

CFC substitutes

do not deplete the ozone layer, ex. Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)

HIPPCO

habitat destruction, invasive species, population growth, pollution, climate change, and over exploitation

main factors leading to a decrease in biodiversity.