- [Voiceover] You Look At A Community That Is In A Given Habitat, A Natural Question Is To Say, Well, Has That Community Always Been That Way? Has It Always Been There? Was There A Time Where Maybe There Was No Life There? And The Answer Is, Well, Yes, The Communities Do Change Over Time, And There Is Some Initial Period Where There Might Not Be Any Life In That Habitat, And Then Life Slowly Colonizes It, And The Makeup Of That Life Will Change Over Time, The Makeup Of That Community. And This General Idea Is Called Ecological Succession. Ecological Succession. And Folks Will Often Talk About The Different Types Of Ecological Succession, Splitting It Up Into Primary Ecological Succession, And So Primary Is When You Start With No Life, Because You Really Have A New Habitat, And Then Slowly Life Colonizes It. And The Best Example Of That, Or One Of The Best Examples Of That Is When New Land Forms Due To Lava Flows. There Are Pictures From Hawaii, Where New Land Is Forming As This Lava Hardens. And, At First, There Is, When It'S Molten Lava, There'S No Life There, Then It Hardens, And Slowly, Basic Life, Or Life In General, Will Start To Colonize That Lava Rock. And Some Of It You Won'T Be Able To See With Your Naked Eye, It Would Be Microbes, And Some Of It You Could See, It Could Be Simple Ferns And Plants Like That, And These Are Often Called The Pioneer Species. But What They Often Do Is Make That Environment More Suitable For Other Types Of Life. So They Might Slowly Break Down That Rock. As They Die, Along With The Broken Down Rock That Also Gets Eroded From The Water And The Air And The Rain, It Starts To Make Soil And Conditions More Suitable For Other Types Of Species. And These Pioneer Species, They Don'T Even Have To Just Be Plants And Microbes. I Was Just Reading An Article About How In Hawaii, Humans Want To Get That Land Because It'S Beachfront Property. Or The Beach Might Not Have Formally Formed In The Traditional Sense, But You Have Ocean View Property. So Humans Might Be Some Of The First Pioneer Species Who Might Wanna Be Out On That Land. And That New Land Doesn'T Just Form From Lava Flows. There Are Other Examples Of New Habitats Forming. So Right Here, We Have Pictures Of A New Habitat Forming Because Of The Retreat Of Glaciers. When The Glaciers Were Covering Up These Rocks, You Didn'T Have Life On Them. But As The Glacier Retreats Right Over Here, You See Things Like These Mosses And Other Types Of Pioneer Species Starting To Colonize. And Over Time, They'Re Going To Make It More And More Suitable For Other Types Of Species. So That'S Primary Succession. Another Situation Is When You Have Secondary Succession. And There'S Many Different Ways You Could Have Secondary Succession. One Of The Most Cited Examples Is When You Have Some Type Of A Disaster. And So This Right Over Here, This Is A Picture Of A Fire, So Here, We'Re Talking 'Bout Secondary Succession, Where You Had A Community, But Then You Have A Fire, And So That Fire Might Wipe Out A Lot Of The Community. And Then It Creates Space For Other Things To Form. So After You Have A Fire, The Forest Might Look Something Like This, And Then, Notice, You Have Species That Start To Colonize Where A Lot Of Other Species Might Have Died Or Died During The Fire. And Sometimes, After This Disaster Of Some Kind, You Might Get Back To The Same Type Of Community That You Had Before The Disaster, But Sometimes, It Could Be A Completely Different One, That The Communities Don'T Come About In Exactly The Same Way. So The General Idea Is Communities Change Over Time, We Have Ecological Succession. There Are Times Where There'S No Community, And Then They Come In, That'S Primary Succession. And Then, You Have Times Where You Have Disasters Of Some Kind That Could Change The Environment In Some Ways, And It Could Change The Makeup Of That Community. And Things Don'T Have To Be As Dramatic As New Land Formation Because Of Lava Or Because Of Forest Fires Or Even Glaciers Retreating. It Could Because Of A Disease, Or It Could Just Be Because A New Species Gets Introduced Somehow That Changes The Makeup, Changes The Competition, The Predatory, The Various, The Symbiotic Dynamics Within That Community.

The Endoplasmic Reticulum (Er) Plays A Key Role In The Modification Osince The Rough Er Helps Modify Proteins That Will Be Secreted From The Cell, Cells Whose Job Is To Secrete Large Amounts Of Enzymes Or Other Proteins, Such As Liver Cells, Have Lots Of Rough Er. Smooth Er The Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (Smooth Er) Is Continuous With The Rough Er But Has Few Or No Ribosomes On Its Cytoplasmic Surface. Functions Of The Smooth Er Include: Synthesis Of Carbohydrates, Lipids, And Steroid Hormones Detoxification Of Medications And Poisons Storage Of Calcium Ions In Muscle Cells, A Special Type Of Smooth Er Called The Sarcoplasmic Reticulum Is Responsible For Storage Of Calcium Ions Which Are Needed To Trigger The Coordinated Contractions Of Muscle Fibers. There Are Also Tiny "Smooth" Patches Of Er Found Within The Rough Er. These Patches Serve As Exit Sites For Vesicles Budding Off From The Rough Er And Are Called Transitional Er . The Golgi Apparatus When Vesicles Bud Off From The Er, Where Do They Go? Before Reaching Their Final Destination, The Lipids And Proteins In The Transport Vesicles Need To Be Sorted, Packaged, And Tagged So That They Wind Up In The Right Place. This Sorting, Tagging, Packaging, And Distribution Takes Place In The Golgi Apparatus (Golgi Body), An Organelle Made Up Of Flattened Discs Of Membrane. Micrograph Of The Golgi Apparatus Showing A Series Of Flattened Membrane Discs In Cross-Section _image Credit: "The Endomembrane System And Proteins: Figure 3" By Openstax College, Biology (Cc By 3.0), Modification Of Work By Lousia Howard_ The Receiving Side Of The Golgi Apparatus Is Called The Cis Face And The Opposite Side Is Called The Trans Face. Transport Vesicles From The Er Travel To The Cis Face, Fuse With It, And Empty Their Contents Into The Lumen Of The Golgi Apparatus. As Proteins And Lipids Travel Through The Golgi, They Undergo Further Modifications. Short Chains Of Sugar Molecules Might Be Added Or Removed, Or Phosphate Groups Attached As Tags. Carbohydrate Processing Is Shown In The Diagram As The Gain And Loss Of Branches On The Purple Carbohydrate Group Attached To The Protein. Image Showing Transport Of A Membrane Protein From The Rough Er Through The Golgi To The Plasma Membrane. The Protein Is Initially Modified By The Addition Of Branching Carbohydrate Chains In The Rough Er; These Chains Are Then Trimmed Back And Replaced With Other Branching Chains In The Golgi Apparatus. The Protein, With Its Final Set Of Carbohydrate Chains, Is Then Transported To The Plasma Membrane In A Transport Vesicle. The Vesicle Fuses With The Plasma Membrane, Its Lipids And Protein Cargo Becoming Part Of The Plasma Membrane. _image Modified From "The Endomembrane System And Proteins: Figure 1" By Openstax College, Biology (Cc By 3.0), Modification Of Work By Magnus Manske_ Finally, The Modified Proteins Are Sorted (Based On Markers Such As Amino Acid Sequences And Chemical Tags) And Packaged Into Vesicles That Bud From The Trans Face Of The Golgi. Some Of These Vesicles Deliver Their Contents To Other Parts Of The Cell Where They Will Be Used, Such As The Lysosome Or Vacuole. Others Fuse With The Plasma Membrane, Delivering Membrane-Anchored Proteins That Function There And Releasing Secreted Proteins Outside The Cell. Cells That Secrete Many Proteins—Such As Salivary Gland Cells That Secrete Digestive Enzymes, Or Cells Of The Immune System That Secrete Antibodies—Have Many Golgi Stacks. In Plant Cells, The Golgi Apparatus Also Makes Polysaccharides (Long-Chain Carbohydrates), Some Of Which Are Incorporated Into The Cell Wall. Lysosomes The Lysosome Is An Organelle That Contains Digestive Enzymes And Acts As The Organelle-Recycling Facility Of An Animal Cell. It Breaks Down Old And Unnecessary Structures So Their Molecules Can Be Reused. Lysosomes Are Part Of The Endomembrane System, And Some Vesicles That Leave The Golgi Are Bound For The Lysosome. Lysosomes Can Also Digest Foreign Particles That Are Brought Into The Cell From Outside. As An Example, Let'S Consider A Class Of White Blood Cells Called Macrophages, Which Are Part Of The Human Immune System. In A Process Known As Phagocytosis, A Section Of The Macrophage’S Plasma Membrane Invaginates—Folds Inward—To Engulf A Pathogen, As Shown Below. Diagram Of Phagocytosis, In Which The Phagosome Generated By Engulfment Of A Particle Fuses With A Lysosome, Allowing Digestion Of The Particle. _image Credit: Modified From "The Endomembrane System And Proteins: Figure 4" By Openstax College, Biology (Cc By 3.0)_ The Invaginated Section, With The Pathogen Inside, Pinches Off From The Plasma Membrane To Form A Structure Called A Phagosome. The Phagosome Then Fuses With A Lysosome, Forming A Combined Compartment Where Digestive Enzymes Destroy The Pathogen. Vacuoles Plants Cells Are Unique Because They Have A Lysosome-Like Organelle Called The Vacuole. The Large Central Vacuole Stores Water And Wastes, Isolates Hazardous Materials, And Has Enzymes That Can Break Down Macromolecules And Cellular Components, Like Those Of A Lysosome. Plant Vacuoles Also Function In Water Balance And May Be Used To Store Compounds Such As Toxins And Pigments (Colored Particles). Lysosomes Vs. Peroxisomes One Point That Can Be Confusing Is The Difference Between Lysosomes And Peroxisomes. Both Types Of Organelles Are Involved In Breaking Down Molecules And Neutralizing Hazards To The Cell. Also, Both Usually Show Up As Small, Round Blobs In Diagrams. However, The Peroxisome Is A Different Organelle With Its Own Unique Properties And Role In The Cell. It Houses Enzymes Involved In Oxidation Reactions, Which Produce Hydrogen Peroxide ( ) As A By-Product. The Enzymes Break Down Fatty Acids And Amino Acids, And They Also Detoxify Some Substances That Enter The Body. For Example, Alcohol Is Detoxified By Peroxisomes Found In Liver Cells. Importantly, Peroxisomes—Unlike Lysosomes—Are Not Part Of The Endomembrane System. That Means They Don'T Receive Vesicles From The Golgi Apparatus. You Can Learn More About How Proteins Are Shipped To The Peroxisome In The Article On Protein Targeting.F Proteins And The Synthesis Of Lipids. It Consists Of A Network Of Membranous Tubules And Flattened Sacs. The Discs And Tubules Of The Er Are Hollow, And The Space Inside Is Called The Lumen. Rough Er The Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough Er) Gets Its Name From The Bumpy Ribosomes Attached To Its Cytoplasmic Surface. As These Ribosomes Make Proteins, They Feed The Newly Forming Protein Chains Into The Lumen. Some Are Transferred Fully Into The Er And Float Inside, While Others Are Anchored In The Membrane. Inside The Er, The Proteins Fold And Undergo Modifications, Such As The Addition Of Carbohydrate Side Chains. These Modified Proteins Will Be Incorporated Into Cellular Membranes—The Membrane Of The Er Or Those Of Other Organelles—Or Secreted From The Cell. If The Modified Proteins Are Not Destined To Stay In The Er, They Will Be Packaged Into Vesicles, Or Small Spheres Of Membrane That Are Used For Transport, And Shipped To The Golgi Apparatus. The Rough Er Also Makes Phospholipids For Other Cellular Membranes, Which Are Transported When The Vesicle Forms.

Eukaryotic Vs Prokaryotic Cells Using Analogies

We Need To Rewrite The Quadratic Expression By Factoring. To Factor Into : Must Be Equal To . Must Be Equal To . And Would Work: So, We Can Rewrite The Expression As . The Expression Is Equivalent To . Learn More About Factoring Quadratic And Polynomial Expressions Questions In This Lesson.

AP Biology: biological macromolecules