U.S. History Final Exam Study Guide 1. Columbus Christopher Columbus was an Italian explorer who sailed for Spain in 1492. He was searching for a westward route to Asia but instead reached the Caribbean. His voyage began long-term European exploration and colonization of the Americas. Columbus’s arrival also led to major consequences for Native Americans, including disease, conquest, forced labor, and cultural destruction. 2. Columbian Exchange The Columbian Exchange was the transfer of plants, animals, people, diseases, and ideas between Europe, Africa, and the Americas after 1492. Europeans brought horses, cattle, wheat, and diseases like smallpox. The Americas sent corn, potatoes, tomatoes, tobacco, and cacao to Europe. It changed diets, economies, populations, and environments around the world. 3. Jackson and the Bank Andrew Jackson opposed the Second Bank of the United States because he believed it gave too much power to wealthy elites. He thought the bank was unfair to common people and harmful to democracy. Jackson vetoed the bill to renew the bank’s charter and removed federal money from it. This became known as the “Bank War.” 4. Jamestown Jamestown was founded in 1607 in Virginia and was the first permanent English settlement in North America. The settlers struggled with disease, starvation, poor leadership, and conflict with Native Americans. The colony survived partly because of tobacco farming. Jamestown became important because it showed England could establish colonies in America. 5. John Smith / John Rolfe John Smith helped Jamestown survive by enforcing discipline with the rule, “He who does not work shall not eat.” He also built relationships with local Native Americans. John Rolfe introduced a successful type of tobacco, which became Jamestown’s main cash crop. Rolfe also married Pocahontas, helping create a short period of peace. 6. Middle Passage The Middle Passage was the forced journey of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas. Conditions on ships were brutal, overcrowded, and deadly. Many Africans died from disease, starvation, abuse, or suicide. It was part of the triangular trade system and a major part of the growth of slavery in the Americas. 7. Bacon’s Rebellion Bacon’s Rebellion happened in Virginia in 1676. Nathaniel Bacon led poor farmers, indentured servants, and others against Governor Berkeley. They were angry about lack of protection from Native American attacks and unfair treatment by wealthy landowners. After the rebellion, plantation owners relied more on enslaved Africans instead of indentured servants. 8. Mayflower Compact The Mayflower Compact was signed in 1620 by the Pilgrims before they settled at Plymouth. It created a basic form of self-government. The signers agreed to make and follow laws for the good of the colony. It is important because it was an early example of democracy and majority rule in America. 9. Pilgrims & Puritans Pilgrims were Separatists who wanted to completely break away from the Church of England. They settled Plymouth in 1620. Puritans wanted to reform or “purify” the Church of England and settled mostly in Massachusetts Bay. Both groups came for religious reasons, but the Puritans created a larger and stricter society. 10. Age of Jackson Presidents The Age of Jackson refers mainly to Andrew Jackson’s presidency and the expansion of democracy for white men. Voting rights expanded as property requirements were removed for many white males. Jackson presented himself as a champion of the common man. However, this era also included Indian removal, the Bank War, and growing sectional conflict. 11. Stamp Act The Stamp Act of 1765 was a British tax on paper goods such as newspapers, legal documents, and playing cards. Colonists were angry because they had no representatives in Parliament. This led to the slogan “No taxation without representation.” Colonial protests helped force Britain to repeal the law. 12. American System The American System was an economic plan supported by Henry Clay. It included protective tariffs, a national bank, and internal improvements such as roads and canals. Its goal was to strengthen the U.S. economy and connect different regions. It showed the federal government taking a stronger role in economic growth. 13. Boston Massacre The Boston Massacre happened in 1770 when British soldiers fired into a crowd of colonists, killing five people. Colonists used the event as propaganda against Britain. Paul Revere’s engraving made the British look cruel and violent. It increased anger and tension between Britain and the colonies. 14. Boston Tea Party The Boston Tea Party happened in 1773. Colonists protested the Tea Act by dumping British tea into Boston Harbor. They were angry because Britain gave the British East India Company special advantages. Britain responded with the Intolerable Acts, which punished Massachusetts. 15. Declaration of Independence The Declaration of Independence was adopted on July 4, 1776. It announced that the colonies were separating from Britain. Thomas Jefferson wrote most of it. The document argued that people have natural rights and that government gets power from the consent of the governed. 16. Unalienable Rights Unalienable rights are rights that cannot be taken away. In the Declaration of Independence, these include “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” The idea came from Enlightenment thinkers like John Locke. These rights were used to justify independence from Britain. 17. Common Sense / Thomas Paine Common Sense was a pamphlet written by Thomas Paine in 1776. It argued that the colonies should become independent from Britain. Paine used simple language so ordinary people could understand. It helped convince many colonists to support independence. 18. Articles of Confederation The Articles of Confederation were America’s first national government. They created a weak central government because Americans feared tyranny. Congress could not tax, regulate trade well, or enforce laws effectively. Its weaknesses led to the creation of the Constitution. 19. Shays’ Rebellion Shays’ Rebellion was a farmers’ rebellion in Massachusetts in 1786–1787. Farmers were angry about debt, taxes, and losing their farms. The weak national government could not respond effectively. This showed the problems of the Articles of Confederation and encouraged leaders to write the Constitution. 20. Lexington and Concord / “Shot Heard ’Round the World” The Battles of Lexington and Concord happened in April 1775. They were the first battles of the American Revolution. British troops went to seize colonial weapons, but colonial militias resisted. The “shot heard ’round the world” refers to the first shot that began the Revolution. 21. Bunker Hill The Battle of Bunker Hill happened in 1775 near Boston. The British won, but they suffered heavy casualties. The battle proved that colonial forces could fight against the powerful British army. It gave colonists confidence early in the Revolution. 22. Saratoga / Ben Franklin The Battle of Saratoga in 1777 was a major American victory. It is considered the turning point of the Revolutionary War. After Saratoga, France agreed to support the Americans. Benjamin Franklin helped negotiate the French alliance, which provided money, troops, and naval support. 23. Yorktown The Battle of Yorktown happened in 1781. American and French forces trapped British General Cornwallis in Virginia. The French navy blocked British escape by sea. Cornwallis surrendered, effectively ending the Revolutionary War. 24. Alexander Hamilton / Economic Plan Alexander Hamilton was the first Secretary of the Treasury. His economic plan included paying off national debt, creating a national bank, and supporting manufacturing. He wanted a strong federal government and strong economy. His plan helped stabilize the new nation but caused political conflict. 25. Whiskey Rebellion The Whiskey Rebellion happened in 1794 when farmers protested a tax on whiskey. President George Washington sent federal troops to stop the rebellion. This showed that the new Constitution gave the federal government power to enforce laws. It was a contrast to the weakness shown during Shays’ Rebellion. 26. Washington’s Farewell Address Washington’s Farewell Address warned Americans against political parties and permanent foreign alliances. He believed political parties could divide the nation. He also wanted the U.S. to avoid being pulled into European conflicts. His advice influenced American foreign policy for many years. 27. James K. Polk James K. Polk was president from 1845 to 1849. He strongly supported Manifest Destiny and westward expansion. During his presidency, the U.S. gained Oregon territory and fought the Mexican-American War. The U.S. gained a large amount of land, including California and the Southwest. 28. William Henry Harrison William Henry Harrison was the 9th president of the United States. He was known as a military hero from the Battle of Tippecanoe. He gave a very long inaugural speech in cold weather and died about a month later. He had the shortest presidency in U.S. history. 29. Constitution The Constitution is the supreme law of the United States. It replaced the Articles of Confederation and created a stronger federal government. It established three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. It also created checks and balances to prevent one branch from becoming too powerful. 30. Preamble to the Constitution The Preamble is the introduction to the Constitution. It begins with “We the People.” It explains the goals of the government, such as forming a more perfect union, establishing justice, ensuring peace, providing defense, promoting general welfare, and securing liberty. 31. The Republican Party The Republican Party was founded in the 1850s. It opposed the spread of slavery into western territories. Abraham Lincoln was the first Republican president. The party’s rise showed how slavery was becoming the central political issue before the Civil War. 32. Three-Fifths Compromise The Three-Fifths Compromise was made at the Constitutional Convention. It said that enslaved people would count as three-fifths of a person for representation and taxation. Southern states wanted enslaved people counted for more representation. This compromise increased Southern political power while protecting slavery. 33. Checks and Balances Checks and balances allow each branch of government to limit the power of the others. For example, the president can veto laws, Congress can override vetoes, and the Supreme Court can declare laws unconstitutional. This system prevents any one branch from becoming too powerful. 34. Intolerable Acts The Intolerable Acts were passed by Britain after the Boston Tea Party. They punished Massachusetts by closing Boston Harbor and limiting self-government. Colonists saw these acts as unfair and oppressive. They helped unite the colonies against Britain. 35. Bill of Rights The Bill of Rights is the first ten amendments to the Constitution. It protects individual freedoms such as speech, religion, press, assembly, and the right to bear arms. It was added to satisfy Anti-Federalists who feared a strong central government. 36. Impressment Impressment was the British practice of forcing American sailors into the British navy. It angered Americans and violated U.S. neutrality. Impressment was one of the major causes of the War of 1812. 37. Judicial Review / Marbury v. Madison Judicial review is the power of the Supreme Court to declare laws unconstitutional. It was established in Marbury v. Madison in 1803. Chief Justice John Marshall strengthened the power of the Supreme Court through this decision. 38. James Madison James Madison is known as the “Father of the Constitution” because he helped design the U.S. government. He also helped write the Federalist Papers and the Bill of Rights. As president, he led the country during the War of 1812. 39. War of 1812 / Battle of New Orleans The War of 1812 was fought between the United States and Britain. Causes included impressment, trade restrictions, and British support for Native American resistance. The Battle of New Orleans was fought after the peace treaty had been signed, but news had not arrived. Andrew Jackson became a national hero because of the victory. 40. Monroe Doctrine The Monroe Doctrine was announced in 1823 by President James Monroe. It warned European nations not to colonize or interfere in the Americas. In return, the U.S. would stay out of European affairs. It showed growing American confidence in foreign policy. 41. John Quincy Adams / Corrupt Bargain John Quincy Adams became president after the election of 1824. No candidate won a majority, so the House of Representatives decided the election. Henry Clay supported Adams and later became Secretary of State. Andrew Jackson’s supporters called this a “corrupt bargain.” 42. Manifest Destiny Manifest Destiny was the belief that the United States was destined to expand across North America. It encouraged westward expansion. Supporters saw expansion as progress, but it led to Native American removal, war with Mexico, and conflict over slavery. 43. Trail of Tears / Indian Removal Act The Indian Removal Act of 1830 allowed the federal government to move Native Americans west of the Mississippi River. The Trail of Tears refers especially to the forced removal of the Cherokee. Thousands died from hunger, disease, and exposure. It is one of the darkest examples of U.S. expansion. 44. Worcester v. Georgia Worcester v. Georgia was an 1832 Supreme Court case. The Court ruled that Georgia had no authority over Cherokee land. However, President Andrew Jackson did not enforce the ruling. The Cherokee were still forced to move west. 45. Missouri Compromise The Missouri Compromise was passed in 1820. Missouri entered as a slave state, and Maine entered as a free state. It also banned slavery north of the 36°30′ line in the Louisiana Territory. It temporarily balanced free and slave states but did not solve the slavery issue. 46. Alamo The Alamo was a mission in San Antonio, Texas, where Texan defenders fought Mexican forces in 1836. The defenders were defeated, but the battle became a symbol of resistance. “Remember the Alamo” became a rallying cry during the Texas Revolution. 47. Kansas-Nebraska Act The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 allowed settlers in Kansas and Nebraska to decide whether to allow slavery through popular sovereignty. It repealed the Missouri Compromise line. It led to violence in Kansas, known as “Bleeding Kansas,” and increased sectional conflict. 48. Harriet Tubman Harriet Tubman escaped slavery and became a leader in the Underground Railroad. She helped many enslaved people escape to freedom. During the Civil War, she also served as a nurse, spy, and scout for the Union. She became a symbol of courage and resistance to slavery. 49. Seneca Falls Convention The Seneca Falls Convention was held in 1848 in New York. It was the first major women’s rights convention in the United States. Leaders included Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott. The convention demanded women’s rights, including the right to vote. 50. John Brown John Brown was a radical abolitionist who believed slavery must be ended by force. In 1859, he led a raid on Harpers Ferry to start a slave rebellion. The raid failed, and Brown was executed. His actions increased tension between North and South before the Civil War. 51. Fugitive Slave Act The Fugitive Slave Act was part of the Compromise of 1850. It required citizens to help capture escaped enslaved people. It also punished people who helped freedom seekers. Many Northerners were angered by the law because it forced them to participate in slavery. 52. Harriet Beecher Stowe / Uncle Tom’s Cabin Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote Uncle Tom’s Cabin in 1852. The novel showed the cruelty of slavery and became very popular in the North. It helped increase abolitionist feelings. Southerners criticized it and argued that it gave a false picture of slavery. 53. Dred Scott v. Sandford Dred Scott v. Sandford was an 1857 Supreme Court case. The Court ruled that enslaved people were not citizens and could not sue in court. It also said Congress could not ban slavery in the territories. This decision angered Northerners and made sectional conflict worse. 54. Lincoln-Douglas Debates The Lincoln-Douglas debates happened in 1858 during the Illinois Senate race. Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas debated slavery’s expansion. Lincoln argued slavery should not spread, while Douglas supported popular sovereignty. Although Lincoln lost the Senate race, the debates made him nationally known. 55. Popular Sovereignty Popular sovereignty means allowing people in a territory to vote on whether to allow slavery. Stephen Douglas supported this idea. It was used in the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Instead of solving the slavery issue, it led to violence and conflict. 56. Fort Sumter Fort Sumter was a federal fort in South Carolina. Confederate forces fired on it in April 1861. This attack began the Civil War. After Fort Sumter, more Southern states joined the Confederacy. 57. Emancipation Proclamation The Emancipation Proclamation was issued by Abraham Lincoln in 1863. It declared enslaved people free in Confederate-controlled areas. It did not immediately free all enslaved people, but it changed the purpose of the war. The Civil War became a fight to preserve the Union and end slavery. 58. Gettysburg Address The Gettysburg Address was a speech given by Abraham Lincoln in 1863 after the Battle of Gettysburg. Lincoln honored the soldiers who died and explained the meaning of the war. He said the nation was fighting for democracy and equality. The speech is one of the most famous in American history. 59. Reconstruction Reconstruction was the period after the Civil War when the U.S. tried to rebuild the South and reunite the nation. It also aimed to define freedom and rights for formerly enslaved people. During Reconstruction, the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments were passed. However, racism, Black Codes, and groups like the Ku Klux Klan limited progress. 60. Civil War Amendments The Civil War Amendments are the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments. The 13th Amendment abolished slavery. The 14th Amendment gave citizenship and equal protection under the law. The 15th Amendment gave Black men the right to vote. 61. Roger Williams Roger Williams was a Puritan minister who believed in religious freedom and separation of church and state. He was banished from Massachusetts for his beliefs. He founded Rhode Island, which became known for religious tolerance. His ideas influenced later American ideas about freedom of religion.

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Why you should (almost) always look on the bright sight of life

Constant Current Sources and Differential Amplifier

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01. Equilibrium constants Kc and Kp

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brighton rock

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Earth Science, Space & Chemistry Study Guide Glaciers 1. What are the two main types of glaciers? Mountain (alpine) Continental 2. What shape is a glacier-carved valley? U-shaped 3. What conditions are needed for glaciers to form? Cold summers Heavy snowfall Snow does not fully melt 4. Why are glaciers important? Store freshwater Shape land Affect climate Earth’s Layers & Plate Tectonics 5. What is the thinnest layer of Earth? Crust 6. What are the three main layers of Earth? Crust Mantle Core 7. What is plate tectonics? Earth’s crust is made of moving plates 8. What are the three plate boundaries? Divergent Convergent Transform Memory Trick Divergent = divide Convergent = collide Transform = slide past 9. What causes earthquakes? Movement of tectonic plates 10. What is an aftershock? Smaller earthquake after a major one 11. What is a fault? Crack in Earth where movement happens Rocks, Volcanoes & Erosion 12. Which rock forms when magma or lava cools? Igneous rock 13. What are the three rock types? Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic Memory Trick Igneous = fire Sedimentary = layers Metamorphic = changed by heat and pressure 14. What is the difference between magma and lava? Magma = underground Lava = surface 15. What are the three volcano activity levels? Active Dormant Extinct 16. What are the three volcano shapes? Shield Composite Cinder cone 17. What is weathering? Breaking down rock 18. What is erosion? Movement of dirt and rocks by water, wind, ice, or gravity 19. What is mechanical weathering? Physical breaking of rock 20. What is chemical weathering? Rock changes chemically 21. What is terracing? Flat steps cut into hillsides to reduce erosion Caves 22. What is the most common type of cave? Solution cave 23. Difference between stalactites and stalagmites Stalactites hang from the ceiling Stalagmites grow from the floor Memory Trick Stalactites hold “tight” to the ceiling Stalagmites “might” reach the ceiling Important Earth Science Terms 24. What is uniformitarianism? Natural processes today worked the same in the past 25. Difference between soil and dirt Soil has nutrients and supports life 26. What is elevation? Height above sea level 27. How deep have scientists explored into Earth? Only partway through Earth’s crust Atmosphere, Weather & Climate 28. Layers of the atmosphere Troposphere Stratosphere Mesosphere Thermosphere Exosphere Memory Trick The Sky Makes Tiny Explosions 29. What causes seasons? Earth’s tilted axis 30. Difference between weather and climate Weather = short-term conditions Climate = long-term average weather 31. What causes tides? Gravity from the moon and sun Fossils & Resources 32. Types of fossils Mold Cast Trace fossils 33. Renewable vs nonrenewable resources Renewable = naturally replaced Nonrenewable = limited supply Space Unit Solar System 34. Planets in order from the Sun Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Memory Trick My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us Nachos 35. What is the hottest planet? Venus 36. Largest planet Jupiter 37. Smallest planet Mercury 38. Planet that rotates on its side Uranus 39. Inner planets Mercury Venus Earth Mars 40. Outer planets Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune 41. Gas giants Jupiter Saturn 42. Ice giants Uranus Neptune 43. Why is Pluto not considered a planet? It has not cleared its orbit 44. What keeps planets in orbit? Gravity 45. Rotation vs revolution Rotation = spinning Revolution = orbiting Space Objects 46. Asteroid Rock in space 47. Meteor Streak of light in atmosphere 48. Meteorite Meteor that hits Earth 49. Comet Ice and dust object with a tail Space Exploration 50. NASA program that put humans on the moon Apollo Program 51. First man on the moon Neil Armstrong 52. Space shuttle that exploded Challenger Sun & Stars 53. Two elements that make up most of the sun Hydrogen Helium 54. What are sunspots? Cooler, darker spots on the sun 55. Surface temperature of the sun About 11,000°F 56. Type of energy from the sun Electromagnetic energy 57. How long sunlight takes to reach Earth About 8 minutes 20 seconds 58. Brightness of a star depends on Distance from Earth Amount of light it gives off 59. Supernova Exploding star 60. Nova Temporary brightening of a star 61. Nebula Cloud of dust and gas in space 62. Plasma Material the sun is made of Moon & Eclipses 63. Solar eclipse Moon blocks sunlight from reaching Earth 64. Why the moon has many craters Almost no atmosphere to burn up meteors 65. Why we only see one side of the moon Moon rotates and revolves at the same speed 66. Moon phases to know New Moon Waxing Crescent Full Moon Waning Gibbous Last Quarter Shortcut New → Waxing → Full → Waning Space Vocabulary 67. Milky Way Our galaxy 68. Astronomy Study of space 69. Light-year Distance light travels in one year 70. Constellation Group of stars forming a pattern 71. Most common galaxy shape Elliptical galaxy Chemistry Basics 72. What is an ion? Atom that gains or loses electrons and becomes charged 73. Ionic bond Electrons transferred between atoms Metal + nonmetal 74. Covalent bond Atoms share electrons Nonmetal + nonmetal 75. Metallic bond Metals bonded with freely moving electrons Metal + metal 76. Valence electrons Electrons in the outer energy level 77. Atomic number Number of protons 78. Exothermic reaction Reaction that releases energy 79. What metals usually do with electrons Lose electrons easily 80. Sulfur’s atomic number 16 81. Carbon valence electrons 4 82. Protons in arsenic 33 Parts of an Atom 83. Proton Positive charge 84. Neutron Neutral charge 85. Electron Negative charge 86. Where particles are found Protons & neutrons = nucleus Electrons = electron cloud Periodic Table 87. Groups/Families Vertical columns Same valence electrons 88. Periods Horizontal rows Same number of energy levels Metals 89. Six characteristics of metals Shiny/lustrous Solid at room temperature Malleable Ductile Conduct heat/electricity Reactive Noble Gases 90. Why are noble gases nonreactive? Full valence electron shell Other Chemistry Terms 91. Electronegativity Ability of an atom to attract electrons 92. Free electron model Electrons move freely through metals 93. First law of thermodynamics Energy cannot be created or destroyed 94. Reactants Starting substances in a reaction 95. Products New substances formed Acids & Bases 96. pH scale 0–6 = acidic 7 = neutral 8–14 = basic Nutrition 97. Three macronutrients Carbohydrates Fats Proteins Examples Carbs = bread/pasta Fats = avocado/nuts Proteins = meat/beans 98

maintaining a constant envioronment

Types of Circuit & Brightness