Industrial Revolution

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￿ 5.3 Industrialization Begins
Definition and Origins of Industrialization: The Industrial Revolution was a period of profound economic, technological,
and social change that began in Britain in the mid-18th century and gradually spread worldwide. It marked the shift from
agrarian economies to industrialized, mechanized systems of production. This revolution was not a single event but a process
that unfolded over several decades, fundamentally altering how goods were produced, how people lived and worked, and how
societies were structured.
Why Did Industrialization Begin in Britain?
1. Agricultural Revolution:
o Crop rotation (Charles Townshend) and the seed drill (Jethro Tull) increased food production, reducing
famine and improving nutrition.
o The Enclosure Movement forced small farmers off communal lands, pushing them into cities as factory labor.
2. Population Growth:
o More food = population boom. A larger workforce fueled industrial expansion.
3. Access to Natural Resources:
o Abundant coal and iron deposits powered machines and built infrastructure.
o Navigable rivers and ports facilitated trade and transportation.
4. Capital and Banking:
o British banks and stock markets provided investment for entrepreneurs.
o The British government encouraged business growth with stable property rights and legal protections.
5. Colonial Empire and Global Trade:
o Vast overseas colonies provided raw materials (cotton from India, sugar from the Caribbean) and new
markets for finished goods.
6. Political Stability:
o Unlike France (which underwent revolution), Britain had a stable constitutional monarchy, allowing economic
innovation to flourish.
7. Technological Advancements:
o Inventions like the spinning jenny (James Hargreaves, 1764) and the steam engine (James Watt, 1769)
dramatically increased production efficiency.
Impact of the Factory System
• End of Cottage Industries: Traditional home-based production gave way to factory work.
• Mass Production: Factories allowed for faster, cheaper, and larger-scale production.
• Urbanization: People moved into cities, creating massive population centers like Manchester and Birmingham.
￿ 5.4 Industrialization Spreads
How and Why Did Industrialization Expand? The ideas and technologies that first emerged in Britain eventually spread to
continental Europe, North America, Russia, and Japan—but at different speeds and under different conditions.
Industrialization in Western Europe
• Belgium (First in Continental Europe, 1820s):
o Quickly adopted British steam engine technology and became a leader in steel production.
• France (Delayed by Revolution and Wars, 1830s-1840s):
o Industrialization was slower due to political instability (French Revolution, Napoleonic Wars).
o Eventually, France developed textiles and mechanized agriculture.
• Germany (Unified in 1871, Rapid Industrial Growth):
o Heavy state investment in steel, railroads, and chemical industries.
o Otto von Bismarck’s policies promoted economic growth.
Industrialization in the United States (Late 19th Century)

• Railroad Expansion:
o The Transcontinental Railroad (1869) connected distant markets.
• Rise of Factories:
o Mass production was pioneered by Henry Ford’s assembly line.
• Immigration and Labor Supply:
o Millions of immigrants provided cheap factory labor.
State-Led Industrialization: Russia & Japan
• Russia (Sergei Witte, 1890s-1900s):
o Trans-Siberian Railroad fueled industrial growth.
o Focused on coal, steel, and oil production.
• Japan (Meiji Restoration, 1868-1900s):
o Government-sponsored industrialization to resist Western imperialism.
o Built textile mills, railroads, and shipyards.
￿ 5.5 Technology in the Industrial Age
Major Technological Innovations
• Steam Engine (James Watt, 1769): Revolutionized transportation and factory efficiency.
• Bessemer Process (1856): Allowed mass production of steel, crucial for railroads and buildings.
• Telegraph (Samuel Morse, 1837): Allowed instant long-distance communication.
• Electricity (Thomas Edison, 1879): Enabled factories to operate 24/7.
• Railroads & Steamships: Allowed global trade expansion and faster transport of goods.
Second Industrial Revolution (Late 19th Century)
• Focused on steel, chemicals, electricity, and oil.
• Internal Combustion Engine (1890s) led to automobiles.
• Radio (Guglielmo Marconi, 1895) transformed global communication.
￿ 5.6 Government’s Role in Industrialization
Governments played varying roles in industrialization:
• Britain & U.S. (Laissez-Faire Capitalism):
o Governments played a minimal role; private businesses thrived.
• Germany (Bismarck’s State Investment):
o State-funded railroads and heavy industry.
• Russia (Witte System):
o State-sponsored industrialization through railroads and heavy industry.
• Japan (Meiji Government):
o Actively built modern factories, shipyards, and textile mills.

￿ 5.7 Economic Developments and Innovations in the Industrial Age
The Shift to a Global Economy
The Industrial Revolution led to major economic transformations, including:
• Increased productivity due to mechanization.
• New business models such as corporations and stock markets.
• Global trade expansion as industrialized nations sought raw materials.
Capitalism and Free Markets
• Adam Smith (The Wealth of Nations, 1776):
o Argued for laissez-faire capitalism, where the market (not the government) regulates the economy.
o Supply and demand should determine prices and wages.
• Corporations and Stock Markets:
o Large companies (e.g., Standard Oil, Carnegie Steel) raised money by selling shares (stocks) to investors.
• Monopolies and Trusts:
o Some businesses dominated entire industries, eliminating competition.
o John D. Rockefeller (oil) and Andrew Carnegie (steel) became immensely powerful.
New Economic Theories
• Communism (Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto, 1848):
o Criticized capitalism for exploiting the working class.
o Called for a proletarian (worker) revolution to abolish private property.
• Socialism:
o Advocated for government control of key industries to protect workers.
o Utopian Socialists (e.g., Robert Owen) attempted to create ideal communities.
￿ 5.8 Reactions to Industrialization
Labor Movements and Worker Reforms
The harsh conditions of industrial labor led to organized resistance from workers:
• Labor Unions:
o Formed to demand higher wages, shorter hours, and safer conditions.

o Used strikes and collective bargaining to pressure employers.
• Government Reforms:
o Factory Acts (1833, UK): Limited child labor and improved workplace safety.
o Ten Hours Act (1847, UK): Reduced working hours for women and children.
o Bismarck’s Social Reforms (Germany, 1880s): Introduced workers' pensions and healthcare to avoid
revolution.
Political Reactions to Industrialization
• Marxism and Communism:
o Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels argued that industrial capitalism exploited workers, predicting a global
proletariat revolution.
• Anarchism (Mikhail Bakunin, 19th Century):
o Believed all government and capitalist institutions should be abolished.
• Utopian Socialism:
o Robert Owen and others attempted to create ideal communities based on shared property and cooperative
work.
￿ 5.9 Social Effects of Industrialization
Urbanization and Changing Lifestyles
Industrialization caused rapid population growth in cities:
• Mass migration from rural areas to urban centers.
• Overcrowded slums, poor sanitation, and frequent disease outbreaks.
• Lack of labor laws led to long working hours, dangerous conditions, and child labor.
Changing Class Structures
• Industrial Middle Class (Bourgeoisie):
o Included factory owners, bankers, and professionals.
o Enjoyed a higher standard of living.
• Industrial Working Class (Proletariat):
o Factory workers who labored in dangerous conditions for low wages.
o Lived in tenements (crowded, poorly built apartments).
Women in the Workforce
• Factory jobs opened opportunities for women but paid lower wages than men.

• Middle-Class Women: Encouraged to stay at home under the “Cult of Domesticity”, reinforcing gender roles.
• Feminist Movements:
o Mary Wollstonecraft (A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, 1792) argued for women’s education.
o Seneca Falls Convention (1848, USA): Early women’s rights movement demanding suffrage.
Education and Public Health
• Compulsory Education Laws:
o Governments required basic schooling to create a literate workforce.
• Medical Advances:
o Germ Theory (Louis Pasteur, 1861): Understanding of bacteria led to improved sanitation.
o Public health reforms reduced diseases like cholera and tuberculosis.
￿ 5.10 Continuity and Change in the Industrial Age
Continuities (What Stayed the Same?)
• Social Hierarchies Remained:
o The wealth gap between industrialists and workers remained wide.
• Patriarchy Persisted:
o Women continued to lack legal and political rights despite joining the workforce.
• Global Trade Networks Continued:
o Industrial powers still depended on raw materials from colonies (cotton from India, rubber from Congo).
Changes (What Was Different?)
• Shift from Agrarian to Industrial Economy:
o Mechanized farming and factories replaced handcraft production.
• Rise of Industrial Cities:
o London, New York, Manchester, and Tokyo became massive urban centers.
• New Political Movements:
o Socialist and communist ideologies challenged capitalist systems.
• Advancements in Science and Medicine:
o Vaccines, germ theory, and sanitation significantly improved life expectancy.
￿ Summary: Why Does This Matter for the AP Exam?
• Industrialization transformed economies and societies globally.
• While it increased production and wealth, it also worsened labor conditions and social inequality.
• Reactions to industrialization led to political movements, worker reforms, and new ideologies (socialism,
communism).
• Industrial powers like Britain, Germany, the U.S., and Japan became dominant global economic forces.