AP World History Exam Review

EAST ASIA (1200-1450)

• Dynasties in order: Han -> Sui -> Tang -> Song
• Song Dynasty (CHINA) carried a revival of Confucianism
• Confucianism: a philosophy that taught human society is hierarchical by nature
• Filial piety: practice of honoring one’s parents & ancestors
• Before the Song Dynasty was the Tang Dynasty
• Neo-Confucianism: addition of Buddhist & Daoist philosophical ideas
• Under Song rule, women’s rights were restricted - seen as lesser humans (subordination)
• Practice of footbinding
• Imperial Bureaucracy: gov identity that carries out the will of the emperor
• Civil service exam: bureaucratic jobs were earned on the basis of merit, majority were rich men
• Daoism: withdrawal from the world into contemplation of nature; simple living; end of striving
• Buddhism (India)
• Zen Buddhism (Japan): focuses on meditation, nature, & peace to gain enlightenment & reunification with Buddha
• Four Noble Truths:

1. Life is suffering

2. We suffer because we crave

3. We cease suffering when we cease craving

4. The Eightfold Path leads to the cessation of suffering & craving

Eightfold Path: right view, aspiration, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, concentration

• Similarities between Buddhism & Hinduism:
• Cycle of birth/death & reincarnation
• Ultimate goal: dissolve into the oneness of the universe
• Nirvana
• New Branches of Buddhism:
• Theravada Buddhism (Sri Lanka)
• Mahayana Buddhism (East Asian)
• Korea: used similar civil service examination & adopted Buddhism
• Economy in Song China
• Commercialization of Economy
• Manufacturers and artisans began to produce more goods than they consumed / Sold excess goods (porcelain & silk) in markets in China & across Eurasia
• Agricultural Innovation
• champa rice
• Transportation Innovations
• Expansion of the Grand Canal: facilitated trade & communication

DAR-AL-ISLAM

• Monotheistic religions: Judaism, Christianity, Islam (Muhammad)
• Abbasid Caliphate was ethnically Arab -> later dominated by the Turks
• Seljuks gained power
• During the period 1200-1450, the dominance of Arab Muslim empires was fading while Turkic Muslim empires rose up to replace them
• Nasir Al-tusi: invented trigonometry
• Expansion of Muslim rule:
• Military expansion
• Traveling of Muslim merchants
• Missionary activities of sufis

SOUTH & SOUTHEAST ASIA

• Belief systems: Hinduism, Buddhism, & Islam
• South Asia: Hinduism was the most widespread religion in India, Islam was second
• Bhakti movement: innovation on traditional polytheistic Hinduism (movement emphasized the devotion to just one of the Hindu gods) & mounted challenges to social & gender hierarchies
• Southeast Asia: Buddhism & Islam

AMERICAS

• 1428 (MESOAMERICA), Aztecs entered an alliance with two other Mesoamerican states & established an empire with an aggressive program of expansion
• Aztec administration: Created an elaborate system of tribute states, enslaved people played large role in their religion (human sacrifice)
• Inca Empire developed:
• an elaborate bureaucracy with rigid hierarchy of officials spread throughout the empire
• adopted the mit’a system (required all people under their rule to provide labor on state projects)
• Aztecs were decentralized, Incas were highly centralized

AFRICA

• Swahili civilization: politically independent with common social hierarchy, deeply influenced by Muslim traders (Swahili = new language)
• As a result of Muslim influence, Swahili states rapidly became Islamic, increasing their integration into the larger Islamic world of trade
• Zimbabwe (1250-1450) contained massive structures
• With the increasing African & international trade being processed through the Great Zimbabwe, it grew exceedingly wealthy & shifted to mainly gold exports
• Ethiopia flourished due to trade, religion was Christianity

EUROPE

• Christianity (Eastern Orthodox & Roman Catholicism)
• West was Roman
• No large empires in Europe, decentralization & political fragmentation was the political favor in Europe
• Feudalism - a system of allegiances between powerful lords, monarchs, & knights, vassals received land from their lords in exchange for military service
• Manorialism: peasants (serfs) were bound to land & worked it in exchange for protection from the lord & his military forces

[ set 2 ]

SILK ROAD

• Silk Road - vast network of roads and trails that facilitated trade and the spread of culture & ideas across Eurasia in & before the period 1200-1450
• Cultural diffusion - exchange of cultural traits and ideas
• Innovations in Commercial Practices:
• Development of Money Economies
• Paper money
• Increasing use of credit (“flying money”)
• Rise of Banks
• Transportation
• Caravanserai: provided safety from plunderers; became centers of cultural exchange & diffusion
• Saddles: made transportation easier
• Effects of trade:

1. New trading cities grew in power (eg. Kashgar & Samarkand)
2. Increased demand for luxury goods in all places along the SIlk Road (Silk & porcelain)
3. Cultural diffusion

MONGOL EMPIRE

• Nomads - traveling people
• Chinggis Khan (Genghis Khan)
• Mongols were skillful horse riders, had efficient weaponry (bows)
• Kublai Khan created the Yang Dynasty
• Mandate of Heaven - there can only be one legitimate ruler at the time in China
• Economics
• Improved infrastructure
• Built bridges and repaired roads
• Increased Communication
• Yam system
• Mongol transfers
• Medical Knowledge
• Greek/Islamic scholars to Western Europe
• Adoption of Uyghur Script

INDIAN OCEAN TRADE NETWORK

• Indian Ocean Trade: a network of sea routes that connected the various states throughout Afro-Eurasia through trade
• Causes of Expansion
• Collapse of the Mongol Empire -> decline of the ease & safety of travel along the Silk Roads & that led to a greater emphasis on maritime (sea-based) trade in the Indian Ocean
• Commercial practices
• Transportation technologies
• Magnetic compass
• Astrolabe
• Lateen Sail
• Knowledge of Monsoon Winds
• Improvements in Shipbuilding
• Increasing spread of Islam
• Cotton textiles, grains, & luxury grains were exchanged
• Zheng He
• Effects

1. Growth of power of trade-cities & states
2. Increase of the establishment of diasporic communities
3. Cultural and technological transfers

TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE NETWORK (AFRICA)

• A series of trade routes that connected North Africa and the Mediterranean world with interior of West Africa & the rest of sub-Saharan Africa
• Causes of Expansion
• Transportation technologies
• Saddles for camels
• Caravanserai (rest stops)
• Traded goods such as gold, kola nuts, horses, and salt
• Each region specialized in creating & growing various goods, & that difference created the demand to trade with each other, & created the occasion for the expansion of those networks
• Growth of Empires (eg. Mali Empire)
• Hajj - pilgrimage to Mecca

CULTURAL DIFFUSION

• Trade Networks & Diffusion
• Cultural transfers
• Literary & artistic transfers
• Scientific & technological innovations
• Syncretism: new blending of ideas
• Spread of gunpowder
• Effects of Trade on Cities
• Expansion of cities
• Urbanization
• Decline in cities
• Facilitated interregional travel
• Ibn Battuta: Muslim scholar from Morocco, took detailed notes about the world
• Marco Polo: Italy -> China, throughout Indian Ocean, wrote about court of Kublai Khan & China’s grandeur & wealth
• Margery Kemp: Christian mystic, made pilgrimages to Christianity’s holy sites

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

• Diffusion of Crops
• Introduction of new crops -> population growth
• Diffusion of Diseases
• Bubonic plague

[ set 3 ]

LAND-BASED EMPIRES EXPANDING (1450-1750)

• Land-based: An empire whose power comes from the extent of its territorial holdings
• **Gunpowder¹** Empires
• These empires were land-based
• Each empire was expanding geographically
• Main cause of expansion = gunpowder weapons
• Ottoman Empire (14th century)
• Controlled the Dardanelles
• Adoption & development of gunpowder weapons
• Constantinople
• The heart of the Christian Byzantine Empire in 1453
• Renamed to Istanbul b/c of the Ottomans (conquered by them)
• Safavid Empire
• Shi’a Muslim state
• Shi’a and Sunni
• Conflicting beliefs about who was the legitimate successor of Muhammad
• Shi’a: Must be a blood relative
• Sunni: Successor can be elected
• Shah Abbas
• Mughal Empire
• Sunni
• Akbar: tolerant of religious beliefs
• Masterful administrator of the empire & under his leadership, the Mughal became the most prosperous empire of the 16th century
• Qing Dynasty (China)
• Ethnically Han
• Fall of the Ming, Rise of the Qing
• Launched a 40-year campaign of conquest
• The Manchu were not ethnically Han like the majority of China’s population
• The Qing were Manchu, not Han (Chinese)
• Safavid-Mughal Conflict
• Had their eye on expanding into the Persian Gulf in Central Asia
• Religious rivalry (Shi’a vs. Sunni)

^[1]

KEEPING & ADMINISTERING POWER (1450-1750)

• Legitimizing and Consolidating Power
• Legitimize - the methods a ruler uses to communicate to all their subjects who is in charge
• Consolidate - measures a ruler uses to take power from other groups & claim it for him or herself
• Empires & Power
• Large imperial bureaucracies
• a body of gov officials responsible for administering the empire & ensures the laws are being kept
• Expanding empires = larger bureaucracies
• Military expansion
• Elite military officials
• Devshirme system - a system by which the Ottomans staffed their imperial bureaucracy w/ highly trained individuals, most of whom were enslaved; top performers were appointed to elite positions in the Ottoman bureaucracy
• Religion, Art, Architecture & Power
• Rule by divine right of kings (Europe)
• The idea that monarchs were God’s representative on Earth
• Human sacrifice (Aztecs)
• Displayed Kangxi imperial portraits to convince the Chinese that Kangxi was their legitimate ruler (Qing Dynasty)
• Inca (Americas) Sun Temple (served to legitimize their power)
• Palace of Versailles (French monarch)
• Palace was used to consolidate power
• Financing Imperial Expansion
• Zamindar system (Mughal Empire)
• Mughal rulers were muslim. Majority of South Asia population was Hindu
• Zamindar - local landowners who collected taxes
• Tax farming (Ottoman Empire)
• The right to tax subjects of the empire was awarded to the highest bidder
• Tribute lists (Aztecs)

BELIEF SYSTEMS

• Christianity in Europe
• Great Schism of 1054 (Eastern Orthodox vs. Roman Catholic)
• Indulgences - paying money to get their sins forgiven
• Simony - practice of putting High Church positions up for sale
• Martin Luther - Catholic monk who wrote the 95 Theses, was excommunicated
• Denounced many of the corrupt practices & doctrines he witnessed in the Church
• Started the Protestant Reformation -> had the printing press, meaning his message was spread throughout Europe
• Council of Trent - a series of meetings & tossed out many corrupt practices, reaffirmed their ancient doctrines of salvation by faith & works, the nature of biblical authority, & a host of other ideas that made the split between the Catholics & Protestants complete
• Series of religious wars in Europe until 1648
• Islam in the Middle East (Ottoman & Safavid)
• Who was the rightful successor to the prophet Muhammad?
• Shah Ismail declared that the Safavid Empire would adhere to Shi’a Islam -> intensified the split between the Sunni and Shi’a branches
• Changes in South Asia
• Rise of Sikhism - a syncretic blend of both Hindu & Islamic doctrines
• Retained several important doctrines (monotheistic, cycle of reincarnation & death) but discarded the gender hierarchies of Islam & the caste system of Hinduism

[ set 4 ]

SEA-BASED EMPIRES (1450-1750)

• Maritime Technology in Europe
• Magnetic compass - for reckoned direction
• Astrolabe - determined latitude & longitude
• Lateen sail - takes wind on either side
• Astronomical charts - diagram of stars & constellations
• Shipbuilding Expansions
• Caravel (Portugal)
• Carrack (Portugal)
• Fluyt (Dutch) - designed for trade, more cargo, smaller troops

CAUSES OF EUROPEAN EXPANSION

• A huge motivator for states sponsoring maritime exploration was the increasing desire for Asian and Southeast Asian spices, most notably, pepper.
• Causes for Exploration
• Political Rivalry
• Envy
• Desire for Wealth
• Need for Alternate Routes to Asia
• Portugal’s motivations: technology, economics (Trans-saharan gold, pepper), & religion
• Their strategy was to establish self-sufficient trading posts whose main purpose was to facilitate trade
• Spain
• Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella sponsored:
• Christopher Columbus - Italian explorer and navigator
• Oct. 1492: voyages to Southeast Asia -> landed in the Americas

THE COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE

• The transfer of new diseases, food, plants, & animals between the Eastern & Western hemispheres -> MASSIVE CHANGE IN HISTORY
• Effects of the Columbian Exchange:
• Disease: malaria (mosquitos), measles, & smallpox
• Plants & food: Europeans (Old World) gave wheat, olives, sugars, bananas, etc to America; the Americas (New World) gave potatoes, maize, manioc, etc.
• After 1700, they diversified their diets = population growth
• Animals: Europeans brought cattle and pigs and horses
• Caused environmental consequences
• Cash cropping - a method of agriculture in which food is grown primarily for export to other places
• Coerced labor

SEA-BASED EMPIRES ESTABLISHED

• Gold, God, and Glory
• Wanted to enrich themselves (Euros)
• Spread Christianity
• Be the greatest state
• Continuity in Trade
• The Middle Eastern, South Asian, East Asian, & SE Asian merchants who had been using the trade network for centuries before the arrival of the Europeans continued to use it
• Continued to make use of the Indian Ocean Trade even while Europeans sought to dominate it, & in doing so they increased their power & wealth
• Expansion of African Empires
• Asante Empire - trading partner with the Portuguese & British, expanded their power
• Kongo
• Economic & Labor Systems
• Spanish used the Mit’a system in the Americas for their massive silver mining systems
• Chattel (property) slavery
• Race-based
• Slavery became hereditary
• Indentured servitude
• Encomienda system - to coerce indigenous Americans into working for colonial authorities (similar to feudalism)
• Hacienda system - economics of food export
• Slavery
• African Slave Trade
• Cultural Assimilation
• Domestic work
• Slaves held power
• Agricultural work
• Trans-Atlantic Trade Larger
• Racial Prejudice

ECONOMICS OF EMPIRE BUILDING

• Economic Strategies
• Mercantilism
• State-driven economic system that emphasizes the buildup of mineral wealth by maintaining a favorable balance of trade
• Merchants wanted more exports than imports
• Joint-Stock Companies
• Limited liability business, often chartered by the state funded by a group of investors
• Investors lose money they invest in the business
• Gov approved
• Dutch East India Company - Chartered in 1602 by the Dutch state who subsequently granted the company a monopoly on trade in the Indian Ocean
• Investors became rich
• The Dutch gov was able to expand its power & influence across many places throughout the Indian Ocean
• Atlantic System: the movement of goods, wealth, & laborers between the eastern & western hemispheres
• Importance of Sugar & Silver
• Silver satisfied Chinese demand -> further developed commercialization for their economy
• Increased profits
• Coerced Labor
• Afro-Eurasian Markets thrived
• Asian land routes
• Peasant & artisan labor
• Social Effects
• Gender imbalance (Africa)
• Changed family structures (Africa)
• Cultural Synthesis (Americas)
• Changing of Belief Systems
• Some indigenous groups outwardly adopted Christianity, but privately continued to practice their own religious beliefs -> met with violent retaliation from colonial authorities

CHALLENGES TO STATE POWER

• Local Resistance
• Fronde movement (France)
• Absolutism - a political system in which one ruler or leader has complete power and authority over a country
• Increased taxation among French subjects -> French nobility power under threat -> peasants starting a rebellion
• Pueblo Revolt (North America)
• Violently rebelled against the Spanish because of coerced labor
• Because of the efforts of European states to expand their empires & consolidate power under themselves, the various groups that suffered the effects of that expansion resisted, sometimes successfully, sometimes unsuccessfully.
• Resistance from the Enslaved
• Maroon societies (Caribbean & Brazil)
• Treaty signed in 1738: recognized the freedom of the Maroon community
• British colonies in North America
• Stono Rebellion of 1739

SOCIAL STRUCTURES

• Responses to Ethnic Diversity
• Jews in Spain & Portugal were expelled
• Jews in the Ottoman Empire were tolerated
• Since they’re not Muslim, they were forced to pay the jizya, a tax on non-Muslims
• Qing repression of Han
• Mughal tolerance of diversity
• Rise of the New Elites
• Casta system - organized Spanish colonial society into a ranked social hierarchy based on race and hereditary
• Highest to lowest: Peninsulares (Iberian peninsula), creoles (European descent born in the New World), mestizos (European & Indigenous ancestry), mulattoes (European & African ancestry), Native Americans, Mexican slaves
• Native peoples were part of a wide variety of linguistic and cultural groups.
• Struggles of Existing Elites
• Russian Boyars - made up the aristocratic land-owning class in Russia & exerted great power in the administration of the empire for centuries
• Peter the Great used absolutism -> abolished the rank of boyar in Russia
• Ottoman Timars - land grants made by the Ottoman state to an aristocratic class in payment for service to the gov
• Sultans took over these timars

[ set 5 ]

ENLIGHTENMENT (BEGAN IN EUR)

• Enlightenment - an intellectual movement that applied new ways of understanding, such as rationalism, and empiricist approaches to both the natural world and human relationships
• Rationalism - reason, rather than emotion, is the most reliable source of true knowledge
• Empiricism - the idea that true knowledge is gained through the senses, mainly through rigorous experimentation
• These methods developed during the Scientific Revolution (16th-17th century) - tossed away religious authority & used the process of reason
• The questioning & re-examination of the role of religion
• The commands of the Bible shall not be questioned
• New Belief Systems
• Deism: exceedingly popular among Enlightenment thinkers
• Atheism: complete rejection of religious belief & any notion of divine beings
• New Enlightenment Ideas
• Individualism: the most basic element of society was the individual human, not collective groups
• Natural Rights: individual humans are born w/ certain rights that cannot be infringed upon by gov or any other entity
• Social Contract: human societies, endowed w/ natural rights, must construct gov of their own will to protect their natural rights
• Effects
• Major Revolutions
• Emphasis on the rejection of established traditions & new ideas about how political power ought to work played a significant role in these revolutions.
• Suffrage: right to vote
• Abolition of Slavery
• End of Serfdom
• Calls for Women Suffrage
• Feminist movements
• Olympe De Gouges: French activist who created the Declaration of the Rights of Woman

CAUSES OF REVOLUTIONS (1750-1900)

• Nationalism
• Political Dissent
• Widespread discontent w/ monarchist & imperial rule
• New Ways of Thinking
• New Ideologies
• Popular Sovereignty: power to govern was in the hands of the people
• Democracy: the right to vote & influence the policies of the gov
• Liberalism: emphasized the protect of civil rights, representative gov, protection of priv prop, & economic freedom
• Revolutions:

1. American Rev (1776): wanted independence from GB
2. French Rev (1789): Louis 16th tightened control over France, French people rebelled against him
3. The Declaration of the Rights of Man & Citizen: natural rights & sovereignty
4. Haitian Revolution (1791): Colonial property of France, revolution was under the leadership of Toussaint Louverture
5. Latin American Rev: Creoles wanted power but the peninsulares were on top -> revolution started

• Letter from Jamaica: popular sovereignty, right to self rule

1. Propaganda Movement: Philippines fighting for independence under Spanish rule
2. Nationalism played a role in the unification of Germany & Italy

INDUSTRIAL REV

• The process by which states transitioned from primarily agrarian economies to industrial economies
• Started in GB (1750). Why?
• Proximity to waterways
• Coal & Iron
• Abundant access to foreign resources (timber in the Americas, cotton in India)
• Improved agricultural activity (crop rotation, seed drill)
• Rapid urbanization
• Legal protection of private property
• Accumulation of capital
• Factory System
• Water ways, spinning jenny (textile industries)
• Spread of Industrialization
• Steam engine: fossil fuels -> mechanical energy
• Steamships: goods could be transported further & faster
• How did other nations industrialize?
• United States: Massive territory, political stability, rapid population growth
• Japan: saw what was happening to China (western powers taking control over them) -> began to industrialize (Meiji Restoration)

INDUSTRIAL POWER

• Coal
• Oil: internal combustion engine was developed to harness the energy of gasoline -> engine was more efficient than the steam engine -> eventually led to the development of the automobile
• Technology
• Steel: Iron combined w/ carbon -> blast of hot air (more stronger than iron)
• Chemical Engineering:
• Synthetic dyes were developed for textiles
• Vulcanization was a process developed to make rubber harder & more durable
• Rise of Electricity
• Electric streetcars & subways were developed to provide mass transit in major cities
• Telegraph: Morse code, a form of communication
• Effects
• Development of interior regions
• Increase in trade & migration

GOVERNMENT

• Egypt: Muhammad Ali -> steps of industrialization
• Tanzimat Reforms:
• Industrial projects (textile & weapon factories)
• Agriculture
• Tariffs (taxes on imported goods)
• Japan: isolated b/c of the Tokugawa Shogunate -> witnessed Western powers dominating Asian states -> opened ports -> overthrow of the shogunate, power belongs to the emperor
• Meiji Restoration: escape foreign domination by adopting much of the industrial practices that had made the west powerful (culture, government, infrastructure)

ECONOMICS

• Fall of Mercantilism
• Believed Free Market Economics > Mercantilism
• The Wealth of Nations: by Adam Smith -> Mercantilism is coercive & only benefits the elite
• Laissez Faire: hands-off
• Transnational Corporations: a company that is established & controlled in one country but also establishes large operations in many other countries

REACTIONS TO THE INDUSTRIAL REV

• Reforms
• Political Reform
• Social Reform
• Educational Reform
• Urban Reforms
• Rise of Labor Union
• A collective of workers who join together in order to protect their own interests
• Karl Marx: created Marxism & the Communist Manifesto. Called his approach Scientific Socialism
• Bourgeoisie (upper) & Proletariat (lower)
• GB imported opium (a drug) into China
• Opium War - GB wins, China defeated
• Self-Strengthening Movement - attempt to improve China
• Sino-Japanese War - Japan wins, China defeated
• Ottoman Modernization: defensive industrialization, created the Tanzimat Reforms
• Textile factories
• Western-style Law Codes & Courts
• Expansive education systems

SOCIETY

• Industrial Working Class
• Factory miners & workers
• Had higher wages compared to rural places
• Danger of factory work & mining
• Crowded living conditions
• Spread of disease
• Middle Class
• Benefitted the most from industrialization (lawyers, doctors, teachers, etc.)
• Able to afford manufactured goods which improved their quality of life
• industrialists
• Top of the social hierarchy
• Owned industrial corps
• Women & Industrialization
• Working Class Women: wage-earning jobs in factories
• Middle Class Women: Husbands earned enough money, worked a domestic life (taking care of their family)
• Challenges of Industrialization
• Pollution
• Housing Shortages
• Increased Crime

[ set 6 ]

IDEAS THAT JUSTIFIED IMPERIALISM

• Nationalism
• Scientific Racism: humans can be hierarchically ranked in distinct biological classes based on race
• Social Darwinism: made by Charles Darwin -> species survive because they are better adapted - only the fittest survive
• Civilizing Mission: sense of duty western societies possessed to bring the glories of their civilizations to “lower” societies
• Sent Christian missionaries
• Reorganization of colonial govs into western models
• Imposition of western-style education

HOW IMPERIAL STATES EXPANDED

• Congo Free State: King Leopold exploited the state for raw mats, mostly rubber
• Belgian gov took control of the Congo in 1908 & administered it themselves
• King Leopold II: Humanitarian, convert the indigenous people to Christianity, bring them the glories of Western education
• One method of the expansion of imperial state power was the movement of private control to state control in some colonies
• Diplomacy & Warfare in Africa
• Diplomacy: act of making political agreements by means of dialogue & negotiation, not warfare
• Berlin Conference (1884-1885): fierce competition for African territory -> Scramble for Africa
• No African leaders were invited to the conference
• Warfare Example: France indebted to Algeria (wheat), war
• Settler Colonies
• A colony in which imperial power claims an already inhabited territory & sends its own people to set up an outpost of their own society
• Conquering Neighboring Territories
• United States
• Manifest Destiny: a calling from God to possess all the territory from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean
• Russia
• Pan-slavism: unite all Slavic peoples under Russian authority, including all who currently lived under Ottoman & Austrian rule
• Japan
• Built an empire -> expanded its sphere of influence over Korea, Manchuria, & part of China

RESISTANCE

• Increasing questions about political authority
• Growing sense of nationalism
• Direct Resistance
• Indian Rebellion of 1857: went against the Brits since they added animal fats to their weapons -> ignorance and offense to their religion
• Creation of New States
• Religious Rebellions
• Xhosa Cattle Killing Movement: British trying to take the territory of the Xhosa people -> many of their cattle dying, not enough land for the Xhosa people to live -> slaughter of their cattle

ECONOMIC CHANGES

• Export Economies: economies primarily focused on the export of raw materials or goods for distant markets
• Imperial powers fundamentally transformed colonial economies to serve their own interests, namely, the extraction of natural resources or the production of industrial crops
• Causes of Economic Development
• Imperial powers needed raw mats for industrial factories (e.g. palm oil in West Africa)
• Need to supply food to growing urban centers
• Effects:
• Profits from exports were used to purchase finished manufactured goods
• A growing economic dependence of colonial people on their imperial parents

ECONOMIC IMPERIALISM

• The act of one state extending control over another state by economic means
• E.g. Opium Wars - trade imbalance between China & GB (China was profiting off of GB, but GB wasn’t) -> GB illegally exported opium to China (drug) -> Qing officials banned the import of opium -> OPIUM WAR! -> Treaty of Nanjing
• Opened several new trading ports, gave economic influence over the Chinese
• Taiping Rebellion - religious movement among ethnic Hans that sought to get rid of the foreign Manchu rulers of the Qing Dynasty
• Second Opium War - French & British defeating the Chinese

CAUSES OF MIGRATION

• Demographic Change
• Global population exploded
• Famine
• Irish Potato Famine - blight struck their crops (potatoes), leading to widespread famine
• Technological Changes
• Transportation: railroads, steamships, etc
• Economic Changes
• Voluntary Migration
• Coerced & Semi-Coerced Labor
• Convict labor
• Indentured Servitude: an arrangement in which a laborer would sign a contract to work for a certain number of years (3-7) in exchange for free passage to their destination

EFFECTS OF MIGRATION

• Gender Imbalance
• Woman assuming masc roles
• Family structures changed
• Ethnic Enclaves
• Geographic area w/ a high concentration of people of the same ethnicity & culture within a foreign culture
• Outpost
• Caused cultural diffusion
• Nativism
• Policy of protecting the interests of native born people over against the interests of immigrants
• Nativism is a fear of cultural differences
• Gov Policies
• Chinese Exclusion Act (US)
• White Australia Policy (GB)

[ set 7 ]

SHIFTING OF STATE POWER (1900S-PRESENT DAY)

• Decline of the Ottoman Empire
• Young Ottomans - Western educated, liberal political reforms
• Young Turks - Ottomans envisioned as Turks (modernization & nationalism)
• Ottoman Reforms - secularization of schools & law codes, establishment of political elections, & imposition of Turkish language
• Collapse of the Russian Empire
• Russian Revolution (1905)
• Nicholas II - people of Russia wanted more freedom about the government, so he created a constitution, legalized labor unions, & political parties
• The Boxer Rebellion
• Qing Problems: Taiping Rebellion, Loss of Opium Wars, & Loss of Sino-Japanese War
• Boxer Rebellion was against the Qing authorities whom they viewed as foreigners
• Mexican Revolution
• 1917 the Revolution was completed. Mexico emerged as a republic with a newly drafted constitution

CAUSES OF WW1

• MAIN
• Military
• Alliances
• Triple Alliance (Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary)
• Triple Entente (Britain, France, Russia)
• Imperialism
• Nationalism
• Assassination in the Balkans
• Gavrilo Princep - Serbian Nationalist who killed Archduke Franz Ferdinand

HOW WW1 WAS FOUGHT

• Total War - a war which require the mobilization of a country’s entire population, both military & civilian, in order to fight
• Propaganda was used and ideas of nationalism was shown
• Total War Strats
• New Military Tactics: Machine guns, mustard gas, tanks
• Trench Warfare: trenches created used as protection
• Stalemate: casualties mounted but neither side made much progress
• US remained neutral until Germany sunk the Lusitania and attempted to incite Mexico to start a war w/ the US
• War ended in 1918 with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles
• Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire) lost against the Allied Powers (US, GB, Soviet Union)

GLOBAL ECONOMY

• Germany Inflation
• Had to pay reparations (Treaty of Versailles)
• Debts weren’t being paid
• Soviet Economics
• Vladimir Lenin: created a new economic policy (1923) -> introduced some limited free market principles while the biggest institutions remained under state control
• Joseph Stalin: introduced the 5-year-plan -> aimed to multiply Soviet industrial capacity by five in 5 years -> collectivization of agriculture, which merged small privately owned farms into large, sprawling collective farms owned by the state -> famine
• Holodomor - death by hunger
• The Great Depression
• US stock market crashed
• A worldwide phenomenon
• Franklin D. Roosevelt - created the New Deal -> gov put people to work on infrastructure projects, introduced a gov sponsored retirement program, created gov medical insurance for elderly & children

UNRESOLVED TENSIONS

• Mandate System: Middle Eastern territories would become mandates administered by the League of Nations (Mandate C (lowest), Mandate B, Mandate A (highest))
• Japan Expands
• 1931: Japan invades Manchuria
• Seized many territories
• Anti-Imperial Resistance
• Indian National Congress: formally petitioning the British gov for greater degrees of self rule in India
• Mohandas Gandhi: peaceful protests
• African National Congress: obtaining equal rights for colonial subjects in South Africa
• Pan-Africanism: aimed for the unification & equality of all black people across the world

WW2

• WW1 Grievances
• Italy was bitter b/c they didn’t receive promised land grants
• Germany was required to pay reparations which ruined their economy, and they were forced to demilitarize & the war guilt clause - taking the entire blame
• Imperialism
• Under Hitler’s rule, Germany gained land
• Appeasement - attempt to bring peace; no further conflict
• Economic Crisis
• Facism & Totalitarian Regimes
• Facism - a political philosophy characterized by extreme nationalism, authoritarian leadership, & militaristic means to achieve its goals
• Used by Mussolini & most especially Hitler
• Hitler canceled reparation payments
• Remilitarized Germany
• Territorial expansion (lebensraum)
• Eliminate “impure” races

HOW WW2 WAS FOUGHT

• Cause of war was Hitler’s invasion of Poland (neutral Poland)
• Axis Powers: Germany, Japan, Italy
• Allied Powers: GB, France, Soviet Union, US
• US remained neutral until Japan bombed Pearl Harbor (1941)
• Mobilization: propaganda, ideologies (facism, communism, democracy)
• Strategies & Tech:
• Blitzkrieg - shock & awe strategy that aimed to eliminate the enemy with incredible speed
• Firebombing
• Atomic bomb
• US dropped these bombs on Hiroshima & Nagasaki -> surrender of Japan & the end of the war in the Pacific

CAUSES OF MASS ATROCITIES

• Two World Wars
• New technologies
• Rise of extremist political ideologies
• The Armenian Genocide & Holocaust & Cambodian Genocide

[ set 8 ]

COLD WAR & DECOLONIZATION

• A state of hostility that exists between two states chiefly characterized by an ideological struggle rather than open warfare
• US vs. USSR
• Economic Advantages
• Marshall Plan - US sent over 13B in aid for economic recovery in war torn nations & on the whole, the nations that received those funds experienced their own economic revivals
• Soviet Economy - natural resources, large population, & investment before WWII
• Technological Advantages
• Atomic weapons
• Arms Race: spending money to create more nuclear weapons
• Decolonization
• Again colonial troops fought for their imperial parents’ cause, but this time, after the war was over & there appeared to be no clear intention of the imperial countries to grant independence to their colonies, massive anti-imperial movements broke out across the world.

COLD WAR CAUSES

• Conflicting ideologies (communism vs. capitalism)
• Democratic capitalism: emphasizes free market economics & political participation from citizens
• Authoritarian communism: emphasizes strict gov control of economy & redistribution of wealth equally to all citizens who have no voice in the gov
• Mutual Mistrust
• Split in Germany - Iron Curtain
• Effects of the Cold War
• Decolonization - US & Soviet Union raced to influence each of these newly created states & win them to their respective sides
• Non-Aligned Movement - refused to be controlled by the conflict between the US & Soviet Union

EFFECTS OF THE COLD WAR

• Military Alliances
• North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) - US & western states
• Warsaw Pact - Soviet Union
• Nuclear Proliferation
• Cuban Missile Crisis (1963) - Fidel Castro & Khruschev -> missiles placed in Cuba
• US placed nuclear missiles in Turkey (near Soviet Union)
• John F. Kennedy ordered a naval blockade around Cuba
• Proxy Wars
• Korean War - NK & SK -> NK invaded SK -> ended in a stalemate

COMMUNISM

• Conflict between Chinese communists & nationalists -> Japan fought -> had to unite to fight against Japan -> won
• Mao Zedong - under his leadership, China nationalized its industry & redistributed land to peasants by means of a massive collectivization
• Great Leap Forward - An economic plan to rapidly industrialize China through the development of heavy industry -> FAILED
• Other Socialist/Communist Movements
• NV & SV (Vietnam) - Communist gov of north began a program of land redistribution -> few wealthy landowners held nearly all of Vietnam’s agricultural land -> under this program ownership was canceled & land was given to the rural peasantry
• Cuba (Fidel Castro) - attempted to purge Cuba of dependence on & subservience to US -> support from Soviet Union, launched a program of land redistribution & raised wages -> resulted in the transfer of ~15% of Cuba’s wealth from the rich to the poor

DECOLONIZATION

• Negotiated Independence
• India - Gandhi - nonviolent resistance - demanded independence - Muslims vs Hindus
• Africa - new state of Ghana was born

STATE BUILDING AFTER DECOLONIZATION

• Boundary Conflicts
• India - independence through negotiation -> Kashmir = conflict
• Israel - Palestine vs Israel -> Zionism: have a state of their own
• Balfour Declaration: pledge by the British to make Palestine a home for the Jews -> Palestine partitioned in two states: Jews & Arab Muslims
• Group Involvement in Economies
• Gamal Abdel Nasser - Egypt
• Nationalized the Suez Canal
• Oversaw completion of the Aswan High Dam (provided electricity & irrigation for much of Egypt)
• Initiated social welfare reforms (free schooling & healthcare)
• Indira Gandhi - India
• Implemented a series of 5 year socialist economic plans (relying less on foreign aid)
• Green Revolution
• Oversaw the nationalization of key Indian industries & introduced significant gov regulation on others
• Migrations to Metropoles
• Metropoles - designated the territory of the imperial country in distinction from their colonial holdings during the age of imperialism

RESISTANCE

• Nonviolent Resistance
• MLK, Mohandas Gandhi, & Mandela
• Gandhi - promoted nonviolence & civil disobedience
• Member of the Indian National Congress (became leader in 1921)
• Homespun Movement - boycotted British made textiles & made their own clothes at home
• Salt March - reaction to the British salt monopoly
• MLK - fought against America’s racial segregation laws
• Civil Rights Movement - aimed to secure equal rights for black Americans -> outlawed racial discrimination in schools & passed anti-discrimination laws
• Montgomery Bus Boycott - black Americans boycotted the city’s public transportation system
• Nelson Mandela - anti-apartheid, went from non-violent protests to violent ones
• Violent Resistance
• Intensifying Conflict
• Augusto Pinochet - assumed power & ruled over Chile as a dictator, & with that power, he violently suppressed opposition to his leadership
• Idi Amin - violence targeted ethnic groups & in others it targeted political enemies & in still others it targeted seemingly random groups & individuals whom Amin deemed his enemies
• Military-Industrial Complex
• Violence Against Civilians
• Terrorism
• Al-Qaeda & Osama bin Laden - 9/11

END OF THE COLD WAR

• Advancements of the US
• Detente - easing of hostility
• SALT - Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty: prohibit further manufacturer of nuclear weapons
• Troubles in Afghanistan
• Soviet troops (1979) invaded Afghanistan -> FAILED
• Gorbachev’s Policy
• Soviet Economic Crisis - foreign trade was limited, gov control of agriculture stifled the industry, Soviet Bloc countries became discontented w/ Soviet oppression
• His policies: Perestroika & Glasnost
• Perestroika: a restructuring of the economy to address economic woes by reducing the level of central planning from the gov
• Glasnost: means “openness” - all the dissent & criticism against the gov & its policies that had been silenced was now allowed
• Ceased Military Intervention: Soviet would no longer use military intervention in order to prop up communist gov in its own sphere of influence
• Fall of the Berlin Wall (1989)
• Germany finally united

1. *Gunpowder is very important in this unit. ↑