AP PSYCH SEMESTER ONE FINAL CRAM STUDY

Confirmation bias

Tendency to search for, interpret, or remember information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions.

Experimenter bias

When the researcher's expectations influence the outcome of the study.

Hindsight bias

The 'I-knew-it-all-along' effect, where people believe they predicted an event after it has happened.

Overconfidence

The tendency to overestimate one’s knowledge or ability.

Peer review

Evaluation of research by other experts in the field before publication.

Case study

An in-depth examination of an individual or small group.

Control group

Group that does not receive the experimental treatment, used for comparison.

Correlation research

Examining relationships between variables without manipulating them.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

Independent variable

The variable manipulated in an experiment.

Dependent variable

The variable measured in an experiment.

Random assignment

Randomly placing participants into different groups to control for biases.

Correlation coefficient

A number that describes the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.

Mean, Median, Mode

Measures of central tendency; mean is the average, median is the middle value, and mode is the most frequent value.

Standard deviation

A measure of how spread out the values in a data set are.

Nature-Nurture issue

The debate over the relative contributions of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) to behavior.

Twin studies

Research involving identical and fraternal twins to understand genetic influences.

Adoption studies

Studies that examine the similarities between adopted children and their biological and adoptive parents.

Central nervous system (CNS)

Comprises the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Includes all nerves outside the CNS.

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

Controls involuntary bodily functions (e.g., heart rate, digestion).

Sympathetic nervous system

Part of the ANS, responsible for the fight-or-flight response.

Parasympathetic nervous system

Responsible for the rest-and-digest functions.

Action potential

Electrical impulse that travels along the axon.

Synapse

The junction between two neurons where neurotransmitters are released.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses (e.g., dopamine, serotonin).

Hindbrain

Includes structures like the medulla (heart rate, breathing), pons (sleep, arousal), and cerebellum (motor control).

Limbic system

Includes the amygdala (emotion), hippocampus (memory), and hypothalamus (regulates autonomic functions).

Cerebrum

The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher-level functions like reasoning and planning.

Broca’s area

Speech production, located in the left frontal lobe.

Wernicke’s area

Language comprehension, located in the left temporal lobe.

Circadian rhythm

The 24-hour cycle that regulates sleep and wakefulness.

REM sleep

Rapid Eye Movement sleep, associated with vivid dreams.

Sleep apnea

A condition where breathing stops and starts during sleep.

Sensation

The process of receiving and processing stimuli from the environment.

Transduction

The conversion of sensory stimuli into neural signals.

Absolute threshold

The minimum intensity of a stimulus needed for detection 50% of the time.

Rods and cones

Photoreceptors in the retina that detect light (rods for low light, cones for color).

Opponent-process theory

Suggests that color perception is controlled by opposing pairs of colors (e.g., red-green, blue-yellow).

Basilar membrane

Located in the cochlea, it vibrates in response to sound, aiding in hearing.

Frequency theory

Explains how we perceive pitch based on the frequency of sound waves.

Place theory

Suggests that different parts of the basilar membrane are activated by different frequencies.

Gate control theory

Explains how pain is experienced by the opening or closing of pain gates in the spinal cord.

Kinesthesis

The sense of movement and position of individual body parts.

Vestibular sense

The sense of balance and spatial orientation.

Top-down processing

Processing based on prior knowledge and expectations.

Bottom-up processing

Processing driven by sensory input, starting with raw data.

Gestalt psychology

Focuses on how people perceive whole objects rather than just individual parts (e.g., figure-ground, proximity, similarity).

Algorithms

Step-by-step procedures for solving problems.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that often involve focusing on one aspect of a problem.

Availability heuristic

Judging the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind.

Mental set

The tendency to approach problems in a particular way, often based on past experiences.

Sensory memory

The brief storage of sensory information.

Short-term memory

Holds information for a short period (e.g., 15-30 seconds).

Long-term memory

The storage of information for extended periods.

Working memory

A model of short-term memory that includes the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and central executive.

Chunking

Grouping information into meaningful units to improve memory retention.

Mnemonic devices

Memory aids that help organize and retrieve information.

Spacing effect

The tendency to remember information better when studying is spaced out over time.

Recall

Retrieving information without cues (e.g., essay questions).

Recognition

Identifying information from a list of options (e.g., multiple-choice questions).

Context-dependent memory

The tendency to recall information more easily in the same context in which it was learned.

Forgetting curve

Ebbinghaus’s idea that information is lost over time unless reviewed.

Misinformation effect

When the recall of an event is altered by misleading information.

Repression

The unconscious blocking of unpleasant memories.