A-Level AQA Geography - Contemporary Urban Environments

What is urbanisation?

The process by which an increasing proportion of a country's population lives in towns and cities.

What was the urban population in 1950? (Patterns of Urbanisation since 1945)

746 million

What was the urban population in 2020? (Patterns of Urbanisation since 1945)

4.4 billion

Which region has the highest urbanisation rate? (Patterns of Urbanisation since 1945)

Northern America 82%

What is the urbanisation rate of Latin America and the Caribbean? (Patterns of Urbanisation since 1945)

80%

What is the urbanisation rate of Europe? (Patterns of Urbanisation since 1945)

73%

Which region has the lowest urbanisation rate? (Patterns of Urbanisation since 1945)

Africa 40%

What is the urbanisation rate of Asia? (Patterns of Urbanisation since 1945)

48%

Which cities have experienced population decline due to economic contraction? (Patterns of Urbanisation since 1945)

Buffalo and Detroit

What caused the population decline in New Orleans? (Patterns of Urbanisation since 1945)

Hurricane Katrina 2005

What are megacities?

Urban areas with a population of more than 10 million people.

How many megacities were there in 1990? (Patterns of Urbanisation since 1945)

10 megacities

How many megacities were there in 2014? (Patterns of Urbanisation since 1945)

28 megacities

How many megacities were predicted to develop by 2025? (Patterns of Urbanisation since 1945)

37 megacities

How many megacities were there in 2025? (Patterns of Urbanisation since 1945)

33 megacities

What is a metacity?

A conurbation (continuous built-up area) of more than 20 million people.

Metacity examples.

Tokyo; Delhi; Mumbai; Shanghai

What is urban growth?

An increase in the percentage of the population living in urban areas.

What is urban sprawl?

The spread of an urban area into the surrounding countryside.

What are the causes of urban growth?

Cities hold much of the national economic activity; government institutions; business and transportation; higher levels of education; better health; easier access to social services; greater opportunities for cultural and political participation.

What is an example of a city holding much of the national economic activity?

Nairobi, Kenya accounts for 20% of the country's GDP but only has 8.4% of the country's population.

How is natural population growth a cause of urban growth?

Young adults are likely to migrate to urban areas due to higher paid jobs; better education opportunities; greater social and cultural diversity. A these migrants are in their fertile years, the rates of natural increase are higher in cities than in surrounding rural areas.

How is rural-urban migration a cause of urban growth? Push factors

These cause people to move away from rural areas and are largely due to poverty caused by:

- Population growth (the same area of land needs to support increasing numbers of people, causing over-farming, soil erosion and low yields)

- Agricultural problems (includes desertification due to low rainfall; systems of inheritance cause land to be subdivided into small plots; systems of tenure and debt on loans taken out to support agricultural change)

- High levels of local diseases and inadequate medical provision

- Agriculture is increasingly being organised globally. (Land previously used to grow food for local people is now used to produce cash crops for sale to HICs. Many traditional rural communities have been driven off their land and into cities)

- Natural disasters such as floods, tropical storms and earthquakes

- War and civil strife

How is rural-urban migration a cause of urban growth? Pull factors

Factors that attract people to urban areas:

- Employment in factories and service industries which are better paid than work in rural areas. There is an increasingly high demand for unskilled labour in cities

- Earning money from the informal sector, for example, selling goods on the street; providing transport (taxi/ rickshaw driver); prostitution

- Better quality social provisions, from basic needs such as education and healthcare to entertainment and tourism

- A perceived better quality of life in the city, fed in part by images in the media

What are the consequences of urbanisation and urban growth? Urban sprawl

Urban sprawl is the spread of urban areas into surrounding countryside, linked to urbanisation and suburbanisation.

- It requires expanded infrastructure (roads, pipes, cables, wires) and is less economically efficient to service low-density rural areas than compact urban developments with the same number of households. It is a major cause of wildlife habitat loss and leads to increased commuting from suburbs to cities, raising fuel consumption and traffic congestion.

- It increases air pollution due to car-dependent lifestyles, boosting fossil fuel use and greenhouse gas emissions, and can raise temperatures through the urban heat island effect. It also causes loss of farmland and open space, reducing local food sources and increasing food miles.

-Water quality and quantity are affected as impermeable surfaces prevent groundwater recharge, increase runoff, and heighten flood risk. Additionally, decentralisation—the movement of industry and businesses—can contribute to declining city-centre retail, greater landscape homogenisation, and the development of edge cities beyond original urban boundaries.

What are the consequences of urbanisation and urban growth? Shortage of housing in LICs

High population density leads to a shortage of accomodation which leads to a large presence of informal housing. These tend to develop in less desirable areas e.g. edge of a city or areas with high pollution. They tend to have limited access to basic infrastructure. UN estimated 650 million people in 1990, 760 million in 2000 and 863 million people in 2013 were living in informal housing.

What are the consequences of urbanisation and urban growth? Shortage of affordable housing in HICs

Led to a dramatic increase in house prices and rental costs e.g. in London house prices rose by 50% between 2010 and 2015 due to in-migration, gentrification and purchase of property by wealthy foreign investors.

What are the consequences of urbanisation and urban growth? Lack of urban services and waste disposal

Financial restraints can lead to a lack of basic services e.g. water; electricity. Can also lead to lack of maintenance of infrastructure e.g. roads; sewers; drainage, resulting in congestion, polluted watercourses; flooding and rapid spread of disease. Waste disposal creates a large health hazard.

How is waste recycled in Nairobi, Kenya?

- Old tyres are cut up and used to make cheap sandals.

- Washing machine doors are used as kitchen bowls and the drums as storage units.

- Glass bottles are collected and returned to stores for refilling.

- Food waste is collected and fed to animals or composted for use on vegetable plots.

- Tin cans and old oil drums are used to make charcoal stoves, lamps, buckets and metal tips for ploughs.

What are the consequences of urbanisation and urban growth? Unemployment and under-employment

- Unemployment rates are typically high although official data is hard to find and many migrants find employment in informal work such as street hawking.

- Under-employment refers to a situation in which a person is not doing work that makes use of their skills and abilities. This may occur when a migrant moves to a new city.

What are the consequences of urbanisation and urban growth? Transport issues

Urbanisation and suburbanisation have increased city traffic, causing congestion, pollution, health impacts, and billions of pounds in lost productivity. Expansion into suburbs has driven peaks in morning and evening commuting, with additional traffic from shopping, entertainment, and other services worsening the issue.

Attempts to solve this during the 1960s car boom by building more and wider roads failed, as increased capacity leads to more cars. A 1997 California study found that up to 90% of new road capacity is filled within five years. Regardless of investment in traffic infrastructure, congestion and parking problems continue to worsen.

What is counter-urbanisation?

The movement of people from large urban areas into smaller urban areas or into rural areas, thereby leapfrogging the rural-urban fringe. It can mean daily commuting, but can also require lifestyle changes and the increased use of ICT.

What is decentralisation?

The movement of population and industry from the urban centre to outlying areas. The term may encompass the processes of both suburbanisation and counter-urbanisation.

What is deindustrialisation?

This refers to the loss of jobs in the manufacturing sector, which occurred in the UK in the second half of the 20th century.

What is gentrification?

The buying and renovating of properties, often in more run-down areas, by wealthier individuals.

What is suburbanisation?

The movement of people from living in the inner parts of a city to living on the outer edges. It has been facilitated by the development of transport networks and the increase in ownership of private cars. These have allowed people to commute to work.

What is urban resurgence?

refers to the regeneration, both economic and structural, of an urban area which has suffered a period of decline. This is often initiated by redevelopment schemes but is also due to wider social, economic and demographic processes.

How did suburbanisation grow?

- 1930: Few planning controls and urban growth = ribbon development.

- 1940: Development between ribbons led to creation of green belts.

- 1950s and 1960s: Large-scale construction of council housing on suburban fringe.

- 1970s: Emphasis on home ownership led to private housing estates on urban fringe.

Car ownership growth led to the edge of town being preferred for offices, factories and shopping outlets because there was more room for parking and expansion.

- Recently people move to suburbs for quieter, less congested and less polluted environments with lower crime and higher environmental pulls e.g. parks; woodlands.

Why do people move to the suburbs?

• Larger houses 

• More modern houses 

• Larger gardens 

• Quieter roads 

• Perception of ‘better’ schools 

• Perception of fewer visible urban problems of crime, gangs, drugs etc. 

• Perceived as a rise in status – moving to an ‘up market’ area 

• Shops follow residential development with development of specialised retail parks to serve suburban customers. 

• Greenfield sites for new developments 

What are the negative effects of suburbanisation?

- Urban sprawl.

- Environmental impacts.

- Increasing social segregation within cities as the wealthy move out to the suburbs and the poor remain in the inner city. This issue is particularly acute in American cities, where segregation has occurred as a result of both wealth and ethnicity.

- Diversion of funding away from inner city areas to the suburbs to pay for new infrastructure and services.

Why did Surbiton grow as a suburb?

Surbiton expanded rapidly after the railway arrived in the 19th century, allowing commuters to travel easily into central London.

What were the social impacts of suburbanisation in Surbiton?

• Better quality housing and more green space attracted middle-class families.

• Development of quieter residential neighbourhoods.

• Strong commuter culture developed.

• Reduced overcrowding compared to inner London.

What were the economic impacts of suburbanisation in Surbiton?

• Growth in local shops and services around the station.

• Increase in house prices and land values.

• Many residents worked in London, so Surbiton became a commuter settlement.

• Improved transport links boosted investment and development.

Why did Colliers Wood experience suburban growth?

Expansion of transport links, especially trams, roads, and later the Underground, encouraged people to move out from inner London.

What social impacts did suburbanisation have in Colliers Wood?

• New suburban housing estates were built for working and middle-class families.

• Improved living conditions compared to overcrowded inner-city areas.

• Creation of community facilities such as schools and parks.

• Greater dependence on cars and commuting.

What economic impacts did suburbanisation have in Colliers Wood?

• Retail growth, including shopping centres and chain stores.

• Decline of older industrial activities.

• Increased employment in retail and service sectors.

• Rising property demand increased local wealth.

Why was the Becontree estate developed in Dagenham?

The London County Council built the Becontree estate in the 1920s to rehouse people from overcrowded inner London slums.

What were the social impacts of suburbanisation in Becontree and Dagenham?

• Families gained larger homes with gardens and indoor toilets.

• Improved health and living standards.

• Strong local communities developed.

• Early residents sometimes felt isolated due to poor transport and few local facilities.

What were the economic impacts of suburbanisation in Becontree and Dagenham?

• New jobs were created nearby, especially at the Ford Motor Company plant.

• Growth of local businesses and services.

• Increased public spending on infrastructure, schools, and transport.

• Over time, some industrial decline led to unemployment challenges.

Why did suburbanisation occur in Detroit?

• Rapid growth of the car industry encouraged urban expansion.

• Increased car ownership allowed people to live further from the city centre.

• Construction of highways made commuting easier.

• Many middle-class families moved to suburbs after World War II.

What positive social impacts did suburbanisation have?

• Families moved to larger homes with gardens.

• Suburbs offered quieter and safer environments.

• Better schools and more green space attracted residents.

• Living conditions improved for many middle-class families.

What negative social impacts did suburbanisation have on Detroit city?

• Population decline in the inner city.

• Increased segregation and inequality.

• “White flight” occurred as many white residents moved to suburbs.

• Inner-city neighbourhoods experienced rising poverty and crime.

• Community decline and urban decay developed in some areas.

What positive economic impacts did suburbanisation create in Detroit?

• Growth of suburban shopping centres and businesses.

• Expansion of road networks and infrastructure.

• New housing developments created jobs in construction.

• Economic growth in surrounding suburban areas.

What negative economic impacts did suburbanisation have on Detroit?

• Loss of tax revenue from residents and businesses leaving the city.

• Decline in investment in the urban centre.

• Factory closures and deindustrialisation increased unemployment.

• Empty buildings and abandoned land reduced property values.

• The city faced financial crisis and bankruptcy in 2013.

How did the car industry influence suburbanisation in Detroit?

• Major companies like Ford Motor Company, General Motors and Chrysler encouraged car ownership.

• High car ownership reduced dependence on public transport.

• Motorways enabled suburban commuting.

• Industrial decline later caused unemployment and economic decline.

What factors have caused the growth of counter-urbanisation?

- People want to escape from air pollution, dirt and crime of the urban environment.

- They aspire to the 'rural idyll': what they see as the pleasant, quiet and clean environment of the countryside, where land and house prices are cheaper.

- Car ownership and greater affluence allow people to commute to work from such areas.

- Improved technology.

- Rising demand for second homes and earlier retirement.

- The need to attract income to support agriculture.

What does counter-urbanisation affect/ create?

- The layout of rural settlements. Modern housing estates are built on the edges of small settlements, and small industrial units on the main roads leading into the settlement. Former open areas are built on, old properties and some agricultural buildings are converted and modernised.

- Tension between newcomers and locals. Despite the influx of new people, local services are closing e.g. bus services; churches; post offices; schools.

What is evidence of counter-urbanisation?

- An increase in the use of a commuter railway station in the area, including car parking for commuters.

- Increased value of houses in the area.

- The construction of more executive housing in the area, often on newly designated building land, following the demolition of old properties.

- Conversions of former farm buildings to exclusive residences.

How does counter-urbanisation contribute to social and demographic change in rural settlements?

- The out-migration of young village-born adults seeking education and employment opportunities elsewhere.

- The decline of the elderly village-born population, through deaths.

- The in-migration of young to middle-aged married couples or families with young children.

- The in-migration of younger, more affluent people, which results in increased house prices.

Why has St Ives experienced counter-urbanisation?

• People wanted a quieter rural lifestyle outside Cambridge and London.

• Improved transport links made commuting easier.

• Growth in car ownership increased accessibility.

• Some people could work remotely or commute longer distances.

What positive social impacts has counter-urbanisation had in St Ives?

• Population growth supported local schools and services.

• Improved housing and community facilities.

• Lower crime rates and a higher quality of life attracted families.

• Increased investment in leisure and recreation.

What negative social impacts has counter-urbanisation had in St Ives?

• Rising house prices made housing less affordable for local people.

• Increased traffic and commuting pressures.

• Pressure on healthcare, schools, and public services.

• Some loss of rural character and village identity.

What positive economic impacts has counter-urbanisation had in St Ives?

• More spending supported local shops and businesses.

• Growth in construction and housing development.

• Increased employment in retail and services.

• Investment in transport infrastructure boosted accessibility.

What negative economic impacts has counter-urbanisation had in St Ives?

• Higher land and property prices.

• Increased pressure for new housing developments.

• Some local workers were priced out of the area.

• Dependence on commuting meant many jobs remained outside the town.

How have transport links encouraged counter-urbanisation in St Ives?

• Road connections to Cambridge improved commuting.

• The guided busway increased access to jobs and services.

• Greater accessibility made St Ives attractive to commuters.

What cities are most likely to see urban resurgence?

Former industrial cities e.g. London; Birmingham; Manchester; Leeds which have suffered manufacturing decline in 1970s and 1980s but have reinvented themselves as cities of culture and commerce. They revive their fortunes by developing strong financial, business and consumer service industries and have also attracted more university students, young professionals and immigrant workers.

Where is urban resurgence evident?

In the changing landscape of a city. Areas may still contain the industrial architecture of the past, including factories and warehouses, but increasingly these have been converted for housing or commercial use and modern infrastructure and services added. Many urban redevelopment schemes have successfully transformed run-down areas, rebranding them as fashionable districts or 'quarters' which then attract more newcomers, often young professionals, with a high disposable income.

What are 2 areas in Birmingham that have experienced bust and boom?

- The Jewellery Quarter: Employed over 20,000 people in early 1900s for jewellery making, metalworking and hallmarking. Foreign competition, reduced demand and bombing during the Blitz lead to decline in the area. In the 2000s, former warehouses and factories were converted into loft-style flats and townhouses, and more than 30 restaurants, bars and cafes have created a vibrant hub for young businesses and professionals.

- The Gas Street Basin: Close to the city centre, this area was once the hub of a thriving canal transport network moving heavy goods such as coal and glass. Today, the canals have been cleaned up and are part of an attractive area where bars and restaurants line the waterways and traditional narrowboats navigate past large arts and entertainment complexes.

Other than government-led regeneration schemes, what other economic, social and demographic processes lead to urban resurgence?

- Redevelopment by private companies.

- City living.

- Globalisation and technological change. e.g. East London Tech City.

- Major sporting events e.g. The London Olympics; 2014 Commonwealth Games, Glasgow

What are negative effects of people being attracted back into a city?

- Greater pressure on infrastructure.

- Rising house prices.

- Increasing inequality.

What is 'dead heart syndrome'?

The decline of city centres caused by suburbanisation, deindustrialisation, and retail loss, resulting in abandoned buildings and a, "donut city" effect.

When was the start of resurgence?

1990s

Where is urban resurgence evidenced in New York?

The New York High Line: a 1.5 mile elevated rail track originally built to carry goods to and from Manhattan's largest industrial district.

When was New York High Line abandoned?

In the 1980s as the lower West Side underwent a period of manufacturing decline.

When was the New York High Line successfully redeveloped?

Has been successfully redeveloped in the 2000s as an elevated park and walkway lined with trees, grasses and shrubs.

What is the walkway known for?

Being a site for artistic commissions and cultural events and the 5 million annual visitors have increased spending in local shops and cafes as well as encouraging real estate development in neighbourhoods that line its route.

How does the New York High Line promote urban drainage?

Porous pathways contain open joints so water can drain between planks , cutting down on the amount of storm-water that runs off the site into the sewer system. The planting design is inspired by the self-seeded landscape that grew on the elevated rail tracks during the 25 years in which they were derelict.

What manufacturing industry developed in Manchester during the Industrial Revolution?

Textiles.

What manufacturing industry developed in Sheffield during the Industrial Revolution?

Iron and steel.

What manufacturing industry developed in Glasgow during the Industrial Revolution?

Shipbuilding.

What 3 factors led to the decline of manufacturing in older industrial cities in 1980s?

- Mechanisation: most firms can produce their goods more cheaply by using machines rather than people.

- Competition from abroad, particularly the rapidly industrialising countries of the time such as Taiwan, South Korea, India and China.

- Reduced demand for traditional products as new materials and technologies have been developed.

What was the decline in manufacturing employment accompanied by?

The rise of the service economy in urban areas.

What are the two main activities in the service economy?

- Tertiary activities.

- Quaternary activities.

What are examples of tertiary activities?

Financial services (for example, banking, accountancy and insurance), retailing, leisure, transport, education and health.

What are examples of quaternary activities?

Knowledge or ideas are the main output, such as advertising, computer programming and software design.

What has caused growth in the service sector?

- Population growth.

- Financial services are needed to support manufacturing industries, which are still important in many cities today.

- As societies become more technologically sophisticated, they need a larger range of specialised services to keep them running.

- As societies become wealthier, they demand more leisure and retail services.

What are 7 economic impacts of deindustrialisation on urban areas?

- Loss of jobs and personal disposable incomes.

- Closure of other businesses which support closing industries.

- Loss of tax income to the local authority and potential decline in services.

- Increase in demand for state benefits.

- Loss of income in the service sector as a result of falling spending power of the local population.

- Decline in property prices as out-migration occurs.

- De-industrialisation led to the de-multiplier effect in the urban areas affected.

What are 5 social impacts of deindustrialisation on urban areas?

- Increase in unemployment.

- Higher levels of deprivation.

- Out-migration of population, usually those who are better qualified and more prosperous.

- Higher levels of crime, family breakdown, alcohol and drug abuse and other social problems.

- Loss of confidence and morale in local population.

What are 5 environmental impacts of deindustrialisation on urban areas?

- Derelict land and buildings

- Long-term pollution of land from 'dirty' industries such as dye works and iron foundries remains a problem due to lack of money for land remediation.

- Deteriorating infrastructure.

- Reduced maintenance of local housing caused by lower personal and local authority incomes.

- Positive environmental impacts have been a reduction in noise, land and water pollution and reduced traffic congestion.

What is property-led regeneration?

A regeneration approach that focuses on redeveloping industrial and residential land and buildings to attract businesses and investment.

What is the Inner City (Twilight Zone)?

An area next to the CBD with older terraced housing arranged in grid patterns, originally built for factory workers. After industrial decline many experienced unemployment, deprivation and social unrest.

What are Enterprise Zones (1981-present)?

Designated areas aimed at stimulating economic growth by offering incentives to businesses to establish or expand their operations within them. There are currently 48 Enterprise Zones in England.

Why was urban regeneration needed?

From the 1970s onwards, UK cities experienced major structural changes:

- Deindustrialisation: Factory closures; loss of industrial jobs.

- Decentralisation: Businesses and residents moved away from inner cities.

- Urban decline: Derelict land; poor housing conditions; rising unemployment

- Urban deprivation: Crime and antisocial behaviour; poor health outcomes; low educational attainment .

These problems were particularly severe in inner-city areas and council estates, many of which had been built after World War II. This forced local and national governments to intervene through urban policy.

Where is the Olympic Park located?

The Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park is located in Stratford in East London.

Why was the Olympic Park redevelopment carried out?

• To host the 2012 Olympic Games.

• To regenerate a deprived area of East London.

• To improve housing, transport, and employment opportunities.

• To attract investment and long-term economic growth.

What positive social impacts did regeneration of the Olympic Park create?

• New homes were built for local residents.

• Improved sports and leisure facilities.

• Creation of parks and open green spaces.

• Better transport connections improved accessibility.

• Thousands of jobs were created during and after construction.

What negative social impacts did regeneration of the Olympic Park create?

• Some local residents and businesses were displaced.

• Rising house prices reduced affordability.

• Concerns about gentrification developed.

• Some jobs created were temporary.

What positive economic impacts resulted from regeneration of the Olympic Park?

• Large investment boosted the local economy.

• New businesses and shopping facilities developed.

• Tourism increased after the Olympics.

• Improved infrastructure attracted further investment.

• Employment opportunities increased in construction, retail, and services.

What negative economic impacts resulted from regeneration of the Olympic Park?

• The project was very expensive.

• Some local people could not afford new housing.

• Economic benefits were unevenly distributed.

• Maintenance of facilities requires ongoing funding.

What environmental improvements were made in the Olympic Park?

• Contaminated industrial land was cleaned up.

• New green spaces and wildlife habitats were created.

• Sustainable buildings and energy systems were developed.

• River channels and waterways were restored.