AP Gov Khan Academy Unit 2

House of Representatives

The lower chamber of Congress, in which the number of representatives per state is determined by the state's population, with 435 Representatives total. Members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms, so they are up for reelection every two years.

Senate

The upper chamber of Congress, in which each state has two representatives regardless of population size, with 100 senators total. Senators serve six-year terms, with one-third of them running for reelection every two years.

Enumerated Powers

Powers of the federal government explicitly named in the Constitution

Implied Powers

Powers of the federal government not explicitly named in the Constitution that enable the federal government to carry out its enumerated powers.

Constituents

Voters in a legislative district.

Coalition

An alliance of political groups pursuing a common goal.

Cloture

A Senate procedure through which a supermajority of 60 senators can vote to limit the amount of time spent debating a bill and cut off a filibuster.

Committee of the Whole

A committee of the House on which all representatives serve in order to consider the details of a proposal.

Discharge petition

A petition signed by members of the House of Representatives to bring a bill out of committee and onto the floor for a vote.

Filibuster

A tactic used by senators to block a bill by continuing to hold the floor and speak, adhering to the Senate rule of unlimited debate. The purpose of this tactic is to continue to speak for so long that the bill's supporters eventually back down.

House Rules Committee

The committee responsible for scheduling and managing the flow of legislation on the floor of the House of Representatives in order to make the process more efficient and manageable. The committee can also make it easier or more difficult for a bill to pass depending on the rules they create.

Logrolling

When two legislators agree to trade votes for each other's benefit.

Pork Barrell Legislation

The use of federal funding to finance localized projects, typically bringing money into a representative's district in order to please constituents and boost the representative's chances of winning reelection.

President of the Senate

The Vice President of the United States, who presides over the Senate's daily proceedings.

Speaker of the House

The presiding officer of the House of Representatives and de facto leader of the majority party.

Policy Gridlock

When the government is unable to reach compromises or make policy decisions.

Partisan

A firm supporter of one political party.

Redistricting

The process of adjusting electoral districts in the United States.

Gerrymandering

The act of changing the boundaries of an electoral district to favor one party over another.

Divided Government

When one party controls one or more houses in the legislative branch while the other party controls the executive branch.

Lame Duck

An elected official who continues to hold political office during the period between the election and the inauguration of their successor.

Trustee

A member of Congress who takes into account the views of their constituents and use their own judgment to decide how to vote.

Delegate

A member of Congress who always follows their constituents' voting preferences.

Politico

A member of Congress who acts as a delegate on issues that their constituents care about, and as a trustee on issues that their constituents don't care about.

Baker v Carr

1961. The Court ruled that Tennessee had acted unconstitutionally by not redistricting since 1901; establishing both the "one-person, one-vote" principle - that districts should be proportionately represented - and that the Court had jurisdiction to review state redistricting issues.

Shaw v Reno

1993. This case established that although legislative redistricting must be conscious of race and comply with the Voting Rights Act of 1965, it cannot exceed what is reasonably necessary to avoid racial imbalances.

Cabinet

A group of presidential advisers, including the heads of the executive departments, the attorney general, and other officials chosen by the president.

Executive Agreement

An international agreement between the president and another country, which does not require the consent of the Senate.

Executive Order

A presidential order to the executive branch that carries the force of law. The Supreme Court can rule executive orders unconstitutional.

Signing Statement

A presidential statement upon signing a bill into law, which explains how a president's administration intends to interpret the law.

State of the Union address

The president's annual message to a joint session of Congress, which includes recommended legislation and evaluations of the nation's top priorities and economic health.

Veto

The president's constitutional right to reject a law passed by Congress. Congress may override the president's veto with a two-thirds vote.

Presidential Nomination

A president's formal proposal of a candidate to fill a position, such as a cabinet member or Supreme Court justice.

Confirmation

Senate approval of a presidential nomination.

Formal Powers

Powers expressly granted to the president under Article II of the Constitution. Examples include making treaties, commanding the military, appointing Supreme Court justices, and vetoing legislation.

Informal Powers

Powers claimed by presidents as necessary in order to execute the law. Examples include issuing executive orders and negotiating executive agreements

Single Powers

An executive branch led by a single person.

22nd Amendment

applies term limits to the office of the president. Under the Twenty-second Amendment, no one may be elected president more than twice, or serve as president longer than ten years.

War Powers Act

limits the president's power to deploy US armed forces. Every president since Nixon has contested the War Powers Act as an infringement of their role as Commander in Chief of the armed forces.

Federalist 70

Argues that a single executive (led by one person as president, rather than several people acting as a council) is the best form for the executive branch of the United States.

He reasons that one president can act more quickly, and with more secrecy when necessary, than a larger group of leaders. He also argues that a single executive is less dangerous to democracy than a council, because it is easier to identify and remove one corrupt person than to discover who among several leaders is a bad actor.

State of the Union Address

An annual presidential report required by the Constitution, conventionally delivered as a speech to Congress since 1913 and televised since 1947. The president can use the State of the Union to set their policy agenda and recommend policies to members of Congress.

Bully Pulpit

Theodore Roosevelt's notion of the presidency as a platform from which the president could promote an agenda directly to the public.

Inferior Courts

Also called lower courts, inferior courts include all US federal courts below the Supreme Court, including courts of appeals, district courts, and federal tribunals. Congress retains the power to establish inferior courts and to determine how they operate.

John Marshall

An early, influential Chief Justice of the United States who led the Supreme Court from 1801-1835. Marshall wrote several foundational Court decisions, including Marbury v. Madison and McCulloch v. Maryland, which enhanced the power of the judicial branch and affirmed the supremacy of federal law over state law.

Judicial Independence

Factors that prevent members of the legislative and executive branches from influencing Supreme Court justices, including lifetime appointments for justices and a ban on salary decreases for sitting justices.

Judicial Review

The Supreme Court's power to review whether acts of the legislative branch, the executive branch, and state governments are consistent with the Constitution, and to strike down acts it finds unconstitutional.

SCOTUS

The highest federal court of the United States, established by Article III of the US Constitution, with nine sitting justices today. Unlike inferior courts, the Supreme Court is shielded from the influence of Congress, which cannot change its jurisdiction or the salaries of sitting justices.

Federalist 78

"The Judiciary Department," written by Alexander Hamilton. In this essay advocating for the ratification of the US Constitution, Hamilton describes the proposed form for the new government's judicial branch. He argues that judges should serve for life pending good behavior to ensure judicial independence, and that the judicial branch will be the "least dangerous" branch of government since it can neither wage war nor collect taxes. Hamilton also provides an early argument for the power of judicial review, stating that the courts' duty is "to declare all acts contrary to . . . the Constitution void."

Marbury v Madison

1803. An early Supreme Court case that affirmed the Court's power of judicial review by striking down a law made by Congress as unconstitutional. In his written opinion, Chief Justice John Marshall declared that "an act of the legislature repugnant to the Constitution is void."

Constitutionalism

The federal courts use judicial review to determine whether the acts of Congress, the executive branch, and state governments comply with the Constitution. This exemplifies the principle of checks and balances by ensuring that the other branches of government cannot act outside the bounds of the Constitution without consequence.

Judicial Appointment

The President of the United States appoints Supreme Court justices and federal judges. Presidents attempt to use the judicial appointment process to influence the ideology of the Court for years to come.

Confirmation Process

The Senate must confirm nominees to the Supreme Court and the federal bench by a simple majority. When the Senate majority party opposes the president, there's a greater likelihood that judicial appointments will be blocked or rejected.

Life Tenure

Supreme Court justices and federal judges have lifetime appointments, remaining in office until they retire, die, or (in rare cases) are removed by impeachment.

Precedent

A legal decision that establishes a rule for similar cases going forward.

Stare Decisis

The principle of making legal decisions based on past precedents. From the Latin for "let the decision stand."

Court-curbing measures

Strategies for reducing the power of the Supreme Court or the impact of its rulings.

Implementation

The process of carrying out the Supreme Court's rulings; for example, Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy sent federal troops to integrate schools when southern states refused to implement Brown v. Board of Education.

Judicial Appointments

The President of the United States appoints Supreme Court justices and federal judges. Presidents attempt to use the judicial appointment process to influence the ideology of the Court for years to come.

Jurisdiction

The field of authority a court has to make legal judgments and decisions.

Legitimacy

The public trust in, and willingness to accept the rulings of, the Supreme Court.

Life tenure

Holding a position for life as Supreme Court justices do, unless they resign or are impeached.

Judicial Activism

The belief that the role of a justice is to defend individual rights and liberties, even those not explicitly stated in the Constitution.

Judicial Restraint

The belief that the role of a justice is to defer decisions (and thus policymaking) to the elected branches of government and stay focused on a narrower interpretation of the Bill of Rights.

Bureaucracy

An administrative group of nonelected officials charged with implementing policies created by the other branches of government.

Civil Service

The permanent, professional branches of government administration. The civil service is nonpartisan and its employees are hired and promoted based on merit rather than patronage.

Iron Triangle

A longstanding, mutually-beneficial relationship between an interest group, congressional committee, and bureaucratic agency devoted to similar issues. For example, the American Association of Retired Persons, the Congressional Subcommittee on Aging, and the Social Security Administration all work closely on issues related to seniors.

Issue Network

A group of individuals, public officials, and interest groups that form around a particular issue, usually a proposed public policy that they wish to support or defeat.

Merit System

In the federal bureaucracy, the practice of hiring and promoting individuals based on their qualifications and job performance.

Patronage

In the federal bureaucracy, the practice of hiring and promoting individuals based on their political support for a party or candidate rather than on their merit. Also called the spoils system.

Discretionary Authority

An agency's ability to decide whether or not to take certain courses of action when implementing existing laws.

Rulemaking Authority

An agency's ability to make rules that affect how programs operate, and to force states and corporations to obey these rules as if they were laws.

Dept. of Education

Administering educational policies to the states and promoting research on education.

Dept. of Homeland Security

Protecting the United States from terrorist attacks, controlling borders, and minimizing damage from natural disasters.

Dept. of Transportation

Managing highways, rails, and air travel.

Dept. of VA

Promoting the welfare of armed services veterans and managing VA hospitals.

EPA

Protecting human health and the environment by developing and enforcing regulations.

FEC

Administering and enforcing the federal campaign finance law.

Securities and Exchange Commission

Regulating the stock market and protecting investors from fraud.

Formal Powers of President

Powers expressly granted to the president under Article II of the Constitution. Examples include making treaties, commanding the military, appointing Supreme Court justices, and vetoing legislation.

Informal Powers of President

Powers claimed by presidents as necessary in order to execute the law. Examples include issuing executive orders and negotiating executive agreements.