Comprehensive Biology Review: Scientific Method, Cell Biology, Genetics, Evolution, and Body Systems

Scientific Method

A systematic process for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge.

Observations

The act of noting and recording something with instruments or the senses.

Hypothesis

A proposed explanation for a phenomenon, which can be tested through experimentation.

Experiment

A procedure carried out to support, refute, or validate a hypothesis.

Control group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment and is used as a benchmark.

Experimental group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or intervention.

Data

Facts and statistics collected for reference or analysis.

Results

The outcomes or findings from an experiment or study.

Conclusion

A summary of the results of an experiment, indicating whether the hypothesis was supported or refuted.

Independent variable

The variable that is changed or controlled in a scientific experiment to test its effects on the dependent variable.

Dependent variable

The variable that is measured and affected in an experiment.

Taxonomy

The science of classification of living organisms into groups based on shared characteristics.

Six main kingdoms of life

Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, Archaea, and Bacteria.

Eukaryotic cell

A cell that has a nucleus enclosed within membranes, unlike prokaryotic cells.

Prokaryotic cell

A unicellular organism that lacks a membrane-bound nucleus and organelles.

Virus

A microscopic infectious agent that can only replicate inside the living cells of an organism.

Bacteria

Single-celled microorganisms that can exist independently or as parasites.

Pathogen

An organism that causes disease in another organism.

Vaccine

A substance used to stimulate the production of antibodies and provide immunity against diseases.

Ways bacteria reproduce

Bacteria primarily reproduce asexually through binary fission.

Fungi

A kingdom of usually multicellular, eukaryotic organisms that absorb nutrients from their environment.

Characteristics of fungi

Fungi are heterotrophic, have cell walls made of chitin, and reproduce via spores.

Ways fungi gain energy

Fungi obtain energy through absorption of organic material from their surroundings.

Lichens

Symbiotic associations between fungi and photosynthetic organisms, usually algae or cyanobacteria.

Protozoa

Single-celled eukaryotic organisms that can be free-living or parasitic.

Characteristics of protozoa

Protozoa are unicellular, eukaryotic, and can move independently.

Types of protozoan movement

Protozoa can move using pseudopodia, flagella, or cilia.

Amoeba

A type of protozoan that moves and feeds using pseudopodia.

Paramecium

A ciliated protozoan that moves using hair-like structures called cilia.

Euglena

A flagellated unicellular organism that can photosynthesize and is found in freshwater.

Volvox

A colonial green algae that forms spherical colonies and can reproduce both sexually and asexually.

Organelles

Specialized structures within a cell that perform distinct processes.

Cell membrane

The semipermeable membrane surrounding the cytoplasm of a cell.

Cell wall

A rigid layer that provides structural support and protection to plant cells.

Chloroplast

An organelle found in plant cells that conducts photosynthesis.

Mitochondria

Organelles known as the powerhouses of the cell, generating ATP through respiration.

Vacuole

A storage organelle in cells that can hold various substances.

Endoplasmic reticulum

An organelle involved in the synthesis of proteins and lipids.

Golgi bodies

Organelles that modify, sort, and package proteins and lipids for secretion.

Ribosomes

Molecular machines that synthesize proteins by translating messenger RNA.

Lysosomes

Organelles that contain digestive enzymes to break down waste materials.

Leucoplast

A type of plastid that stores starches and oils in plant cells.

Nucleus

The membrane-bound organelle that contains the cell's genetic material.

Nucleolus

A dense region within the nucleus where ribosomal RNA is produced.

Transcription

The process of copying a segment of DNA into RNA.

Translation

The process by which ribosomes synthesize proteins using mRNA.

Photosynthesis

The process by which green plants and some other organisms use sunlight to synthesize foods with the help of chlorophyll.

Cellular respiration

The metabolic process by which cells convert glucose and oxygen into energy, carbon dioxide, and water.

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid, the molecule that carries genetic information in living organisms.

Mitosis

A type of cell division that results in two daughter cells, each with the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell.

Meiosis

A type of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half, resulting in four haploid cells.

Pedigree

A diagram that shows the occurrence and appearance of phenotypes of a particular gene or organism and its ancestors.

Diploid

A cell or organism that has two sets of chromosomes, one from each parent.

Haploid

A cell or organism that has only one set of chromosomes.

X and Y chromosomes

The sex chromosomes that determine an individual's sex; females typically have two X chromosomes, while males have one X and one Y chromosome.

Homozygous

An organism that has two identical alleles for a particular gene.

Heterozygous

An organism that has two different alleles for a particular gene.

Probability

The measure of the likelihood that an event will occur.

Phenotype

The observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism, as determined by both genetic makeup and environmental influences.

Genotype

The genetic constitution of an individual organism.

Genes

Segments of DNA that contain the instructions for building proteins.

Dominant alleles

Alleles that express their trait even in the presence of a recessive allele.

Recessive alleles

Alleles that express their trait only when two copies are present.

Punnett squares

A diagram used to predict the outcome of a particular cross or breeding experiment.

Natural selection

The process through which species adapt to their environment as individuals with favorable traits survive and reproduce.

Theory of evolution

The scientific explanation for the diversity of life, proposing that all species have descended from common ancestors through a process of gradual change.

Genetic diversity

The total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species.

Gene pool

The total collection of genes in a population at any one time.

CRISPR

A technology used for editing genes, allowing for precise modifications to DNA.

Digestive System

The system responsible for breaking down food into nutrients that can be absorbed by the body.

Endocrine System

The system of glands that produce hormones to regulate metabolism, growth, and development.

Integumentary System

The system that includes the skin, hair, and nails, serving as a barrier to protect the body.

Skeletal System

The system that provides structure and support to the body, consisting of bones and cartilage.

Muscular System

The system that enables movement of the body through the contraction of muscles.

Circulatory System

The system responsible for transporting blood, nutrients, gases, and wastes throughout the body.

Excretory System

The system that removes waste products from the body and regulates water and salt balance.

Respiratory System

The system responsible for the exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) in the body.

Nervous System

The system that coordinates the body's responses to internal and external stimuli.

Reproductive System

The system involved in producing offspring, including the organs and structures involved in reproduction.

Immune System

The system that protects the body from infectious organisms and foreign substances.

Ventral / dorsal sides

Ventral refers to the front or belly side, while dorsal refers to the back side of an organism.

Crayfish structures and functions

Crayfish have a hard exoskeleton, jointed legs, and gills for breathing underwater.

Frog structures and functions

Frogs have moist skin for respiration, strong hind legs for jumping, and a vocal sac for mating calls.