Anatomy final semester 2

What are the two main components of blood?

Formed elements and plasma.

What are the formed elements of blood?

RBC WBC placelets

Where are all formed elements produced?

red bone marrow (hematopoiesis)

where do leukocytes fight off invaders?

within body tissues and lymphatic tissues

monocytes function

• Differentiate into macrophages and
phagocytize
• Break down worn out cells

neutrophils function

• Break down pathogens (esp. bacteria)
• Can phagocytize

lymphocytes function

• Destroy cells (cancer, foreign, viral infections)
• Secrete antibodies
• Immune memory

what component of blood causes clotting?

Platelets

Which chambers receive blood in the heart?

Atria (right & left)

which chambers pump to the pulmonary and systemic circuits?

Right ventricle → pumps to the pulmonary circuit (lungs)
Left ventricle → pumps to the systemic circuit (body)

P wave represents what?

atrial depolarization

QRS complex represents what?

ventricular depolarization

What type of vessels carry blood under higher pressure?

Arteries (and especially arterioles)

Vessels that allow for gas exchange

capillaries

As pressure increase blood flow what

increases

As resistance increases blood flow what?

decreases

As heart rate increases blood pressure what?

increases

As blood volume increases blood pressure what?

increases

where does lymph come from?

interstitial fluid

Primary lymphoid organs definition and examples

where lymphocytes are made/matured

• Thymus

• Red bone marrow

Secondary lymphoid organs definition and examples

where immune responses happen

• Lymph nodes

• Tonsils

• Spleen

• Appendix (part of MALT)

What is the innate immune system and what structures/cells/processes are involved?

• fast, non-specific defense (first line)

• Structures: skin, mucous membranes, cilia

• Cells: neutrophils, macrophages, natural killer (NK) cells

• Processes: inflammation, fever, phagocytosis, complement system, interferons

What is the adaptive immune system and what cells/processes are involved?

• specific, slower response with memory

• Cells: B cells (make antibodies), T cells (helper + cytotoxic)

• Processes: antigen-specific response, antibody production, clonal selection/expansion, memory cell formation

Antigens are what?

• Any molecule that triggers an immune response (antibody-generating)

• Activate adaptive defenses

• Usually large, complex, and unique (self vs nonself)

• Found on cells, bacteria, viruses, or as toxins/venoms

• Common types: proteins, polysaccharides, glycoproteins, glycolipids

antigens are not what?

• Small universal molecules like glucose or amino acids

• Usually not small/simple molecules or single building blocks

What do B lymphocytes do?

• Produce antibodies

• Provide humoral immunity (fight pathogens in body fluids)

What do T lymphocytes do?

• Provide cell-mediated immunity

• Helper T cells activate other immune cells

• Cytotoxic T cells kill infected or abnormal cells

B and T lymphocytes recognize foreign substances by

binding specific antigens using cell-surface receptors.

Are vaccines active or passive humoral immunitity

Active humoral immunity because your body is doing the work (making antibodies + memory)

what functions occur in the upper respiratory tract?

• Air passageway (moves air into and out of respiratory system)

• Filters air (mucus traps dust, debris, pathogens)

• Warms air (rich capillary network heats incoming air)

• Moistens/humidifies air (mucus membranes add moisture)

• Smell (olfactory receptors in nasal cavity)

• Speech/voice production (vocal cords in larynx)

• Protective functions (tonsils provide immune defense; epiglottis prevents food entering airway)

where does gas exchange occur?

alveoli

what are the tubes that conduct air?

trachea, bronchi, bronchioles

How do pressure differences drive air movement?

Air always moves from higher pressure → lower pressure, so breathing happens because the lungs alternately create pressure that is lower than (inspiration) or higher than (expiration) atmospheric pressure.

primary mode of transport for O2

Bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells

primary mode of transport for CO2

As bicarbonate ions in the plasma

What part of the brain is responsible for control of involuntary functions such as breathing and heart
rate?

Medulla oblongata

Describe the six digestive processes and identify where they occur

ingestion, propulsion, mechanical breakdown, digestion, absorption, defecation

• Ingestion: eating (mouth)

• Propulsion: movement (swallowing, peristalsis) (mouth → esophagus → stomach → intestines)

• Mechanical breakdown: chewing, mixing, churning, segmentation (mouth, stomach, small intestine)

• Digestion: catabolism (mouth, stomach, small intestine)

• Absorption: GI → blood or lymph (small intestine; some in large intestine)

• Defecation: elimination (large intestine → rectum → anus)

what stimulates gastric secretions?

• Parasympathetic (vagus nerve) activity → triggered by sight, smell, or thought of food (cephalic phase)

• Stomach distension (stretching) → when food enters the stomach (gastric phase)

• Chemicals in food, especially proteins → stimulate release of gastrin (gastric phase)

Which increases activity of the alimentary canal?

Parasympathetic nervous system (especially the vagus nerve)

what does each produce: liver, pancreas, and gall bladder

• Liver: produces bile

• Pancreas: produces digestive enzymes and bicarbonate

• Gallbladder: produces nothing (it stores and concentrates bile

What do molecules need to be broken down to in order to be absorbed?

• Carbohydrates → monosaccharides (like glucose)

• Proteins → amino acids

• Fats (lipids) → fatty acids + glycerol

Where do filtration, reabsorption, and secretion occur?

• Filtration: occurs in the glomerulus (renal corpuscle)

• Reabsorption: mainly in the renal tubules (especially proximal convoluted tubule)

• Secretion: occurs in the renal tubules (mainly distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct)

How is NFP increased?

when glomerular blood pressure rises, such as from afferent dilation or efferent constriction

Define filtration, reabsorption and secretion

• Filtration: movement of water and small solutes from the blood into the kidney (glomerulus → renal tubule)

• Reabsorption: movement of needed substances from the renal tubule back into the blood

• Secretion: movement of substances from the blood into the renal tubule for excretion

Which hormones raise blood pressure and which lower blood pressure?

Increase: Aldosterone, ADH, and angiotensin II

Decrease: while natriuretic peptides decrease blood pressure.