AP Comparative Government: Key Concepts and Country Profiles

Correlation

A demonstrated relationship between two variables

Causation

Scientific demonstration that changes in one variable cause changes in another variable

State

The institutions that maintain a monopoly on violence over a population within a defined territory - Max Weber

Sovereignty

The ability to carry out actions or policies within a territory independently from external actors or internal riots

Institutions

Actors which carry out the state's responsibilities (i.e., executive branch, bureaucracy, military, courts, etc.)

Nation

People group that is bound together through shared political aspirations (i.e., self government)

Regime

Fundamental rules and norms of politics

Government

The leadership presently entrusted with running the state

Human Development Index (HDI)

A measurement used to assess the social and economic development levels of countries

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

The total value of goods produced and services provided in a country during one year

Democracy

A system of governance in which rulers are held accountable for their actions in the public realm by citizens

Characteristics of Democracy

1. The government is chosen and/or replaced through free and fair elections; 2. Citizens actively participate in politics and civic life; 3. Human rights of all citizens are protected; 4. Rule of law equally applies laws and procedures to all citizens

Authoritarian

Regime in which a small group of individuals exercises power over the state with no constitutional responsibility to the public

Corporatism

Labor, businesses, other interest groups bargain with the state over economic policy

Clientelism

State provides specific benefits to a person or group to elicit their support

Personality Cult

Promotion of the image of a leader as someone who embodies the spirit of the nation

Types of Authoritarian

1. Personal and Monarchical Rule; 2. Military Rule; 3. One-Party Rule; 4. Theocracy; 5. Illiberal Regimes

Democratization

Becoming more democratic, moving towards a fully liberal democracy

Democratic consolidation

Democracy is the 'only game in town' in a country for achieving desired political outcomes

Sources of Power and Authority

Constitutions, religious justification, military force, political party unity, electoral control of the legislature's majority, popular support for a leader

Regime change

Altering the fundamental system of politics and power, typically shifting to become either more democratic or more authoritarian

Revolution

Large portions of the population support an overthrow of the existing regime and new leadership arises to replace it; (Iran 1979, China 1949)

Coup d'etat

The existing government loses support, and the military intervenes to forcibly overthrow the government and take political power itself; (Nigeria, many instances 1966-1990s)

Election

New political leadership is brought into power by electoral victory, and uses the victory as a mandate to enact rapid regime change; (Russia, 1991-1993 (after collapse of the Soviet Union), Nigeria 1998-1999)

Reform

Incremental changes are made to the political system over time, transitioning gradually to a more democratic or more authoritarian system (Mexico 1980s - 2000s (democratic), Russia 2000-Present (authoritarian))

Unitary

One national government, local/regional units have little or no say in policy, or are only given authority by the central government (Examples: China, Iran, Britain)

Federal

Local units are permanent, constitutionally established, and divide or share power with the central national government, operating independently on many matters (Examples: U.S., Mexico, Nigeria, Russia)

Confederal

Sovereignty is fully held by local levels of government, united by a weaker central government (Examples: European Union, other IGOs and supranational organizations)

Legitimacy

The people's belief / perception that the government has the 'right to rule' and is accepted by the citizenry

Sources of legitimacy

Election and faith in the democratic system or constitution, Nationalism, Tradition, Governmental effectiveness (such as economic growth and rising prosperity), Religious heritage and organizations, Policy Effectiveness

Maintenance of legitimacy

Maintenance of long-held traditions, Charismatic / popular leadership: inspires exceptional loyalty, Reducing crime, violence, corruption, Preserving the appearance of fair, transparent processes for selecting leaders, Policy effectiveness: government action works, Political efficacy: people feel they can understand and influence politics, Institutions laws: established as part of an official practice

How to lose legitimacy

Visible corruption, Perceived lack of fairness in the electoral process, Failing economy, Social Conflict, Inability to control violence and civil strife

How to repair legitimacy

Policy Effectiveness: laws, regulations, court orders, Regulation: get on the policy agenda, Representation: a seat at the political table, Reform: new or revised policy

Political Stability

Goal of governments is to maintain control over state sovereignty

Challenges to Political Stability

Loss of territory, Loss of population, Loss of government authority, Loss of sovereignty

Fragile State Index

A state that has not yet failed but whose leaders lack the will or capacity to perform core state functions.

Corruption Perception Index

Measures the perceived levels of public sector corruption in countries worldwide.

Head of State

Symbolizes and represents the people

Head of Government

Handles day to day tasks of governing the state

Presidential System

Voters choose chief executive by direct vote, separate legislative and executive institutions (usually including 'checks and balances')

Parliamentary System

Voters elect parliament, majority party in parliament elects prime minister; prime minister and cabinet control most legislation

Differences between Presidential and Parliamentary Systems

Policy gridlock is more likely in presidential systems; parliamentary systems have no separation of powers or checks and balances

Executive

The executive in the government, including the chief executive and the cabinet, are responsible for formulating, implementing, and enforcing public policies through different methods and agencies.

Fixed Term

The executive serves a fixed term and may not be removed by the legislature, except for misconduct through impeachment.

Legislative Independence

Practically, the processes for removing executives are more functional in some countries than others, and that can be a sign of relative legislative independence in each country.

Advantages of Executive Systems

Check executive power, prevent emergence of dictatorship, focus officeholder on governing rather than winning reelection, provide opportunities for new leaders and new policies.

Disadvantages of Executive Systems

Force good executives out of office, allow insufficient time for the officeholder to achieve their goals, impede policy continuity, weaken accountability to the public.

China's Executive

China's executive is comprised of senior CCP leaders in the party's Politburo, who are subsequently selected for roles including President, Premier, and various cabinet ministries.

President of China

Elected to a single 6-year term, head of state and head of government, commander-in-chief, leader of the bureaucracy, approves domestic legislation, and conducts foreign policy.

Prime Minister of China

Appointed by the President and confirmed by the Duma, can be removed by either, head of government, oversees civil service.

Monarch

Inherited, lifetime reign, ceremonial head of state, formally appoints the Prime Minister after election.

Prime Minister in Parliamentary Systems

Elected as a Member of Parliament, Party Leader for the leading party, then as Prime Minister, head of government, de facto commander-in-chief, chief executive over the civil service.

Executive Term Limits in China

Limited to one term of 6 years (sexenio).

Removal of Executives

Each of our countries of study has an official process constitutionally by which the legislature can remove the chief executive and other executives.

Vote of No Confidence

The House of Commons chose the Prime Minister and Cabinet, and can hold a 'Vote of No Confidence' that would remove them and cause new elections to be held.

Legislative Systems in China

Unicameral, National People's Congress; constitutionally, it is the supreme branch of government.

Congress of the Union

Bicameral, with the Chamber of Deputies representing the people and the Senate representing each state equally.

Parliament in Russia

Bicameral Parliament - The Duma and the Federation Council; the Duma passes legislation and confirms the Prime Minister.

Parliament in the UK

Bicameral Parliament - The House of Commons and House of Lords; the House of Commons holds all meaningful powers.

Legislative Powers

Legislative powers can be constrained by other governmental institutions, which can affect legislative independence.

China's Standing Committee of the NPC

About 300 members of the 3,000 member NPC; assumes legislative duties most of the year when the NPC is not in session.

Judicial Systems in China

Judges appointed by the CCP; targets opposition; includes Grassroots, Intermediate, higher, and Supreme People's Court.

Judicial Independence in the UK

Judges appointed by the President and Senate for a 15-year term; Supreme Court is the highest court.

Legislative Constraints

Legislatures have the potential to reinforce legitimacy and stability by responding to public demand, openly debating policy, and facilitating compromise.

Cabinet Ministries in China

Leadership decisions happen behind closed doors, then are confirmed (often unanimously) by the National People's Congress every 5 years.

Removal of the President in China

There is no known official process for removal of the President other than the official decision to 'choose' a President by the National People's Congress every 5 years.

Impeachment Process

The lower house may bring charges of impeachment, and the upper house acts as the jury, with a 2/3 vote resulting in removal of the President.

Term Limits for Prime Minister

No term limits on Prime Minister; can serve provided that their party wins control at elections every 5 years.

Judiciaries

Responsible for interpreting and applying laws, and resolving disputes that arise from the law.

Judicial Structure

Each country has its own judicial structure, and different methods to appoint judges, along with varying functions of the courts.

Judges Appointment in the U.S.

Judges are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate for 15 year terms.

PRI Rule

The system was formerly dominated by the PRI under one-party rule, and Presidents would fill the judiciary with loyalists.

Judicial Reforms in Mexico

Reforms have been enacted since 2000 to make the system more independent and transparent.

Public Trials in Mexico

Public trials have been required since 2009.

Highest Court in Mexico

Supreme Court.

Judges Appointment in China

Judges are appointed by the Chinese Communist Party through processes conducted behind closed doors.

Civil Law Reforms in China

Many civil law reforms have been made to comply with Western business and property practices.

Criminal Law in China

Criminal law remains largely unchanged and harsh to criminal suspects.

Rule by Law in China

Means the judicial system is subservient to the decisions of the Chinese Communist Party.

Highest Court in China

Supreme People's Court.

Judges Appointment in Russia

Judges are appointed by the President, approved by the Federation Council.

Judicial System in Russia

Russia's government uses the judicial system to target opposition.

Constitutional Court in Russia

Has the power of constitutional interpretation and judicial review.

Common Law System

Legal system based on common law - precedent is applied by courts to preserve consistent and predictable application of the law.

Political Culture

Collective attitudes, values, and beliefs of the citizenry and the norms of behavior in the political system.

Political Efficacy

The extent to which people believe their participation in politics can/will make a difference.

Political Socialization

The ways people develop their beliefs about politics.

Agents of Political Socialization

Family, School, Religious Institutions, Peers, Gender, Ethnic Identity, News Media, Social Media, Civic Institutions.

Political Ideology

Set of values and beliefs about the goals of government, public policy, or politics.

Individualism

Belief in individual civil liberties and freedom over governmental restrictions.

Neoliberalism

Belief in limited governmental intervention in the economy and society.

Communism

Belief in the abolition of private property with near total governmental control of the economy.

Socialism

Belief in the reduction of income disparities and the nationalization of major private industries.

Fascism

Extreme nationalist ideology that favors authoritarian rule and the rights of the ethnic majority.

Populism

Political philosophy that supports the interests and rights of the common people over that of the elite.

Political Participation

Can range from behavior supportive of a regime to oppositional behavior seeking to change governmental policies.

Political Violence

Certain political conditions make it more likely that citizens will engage in violent political behavior.

Institutional Explanations

Political or societal institutions contain values or norms that encourage the use of violence.

Ideational Explanations

Ideas without an institutional base spread in a viral fashion and motivate political violence.

Individual Explanations

People's individual circumstances, psychology, life experiences, upbringing, etc. motivate the individual to pursue political violence.