Anatomy and Physiology final exam notes

Types of tissue

The four main types of tissue are Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, and Nervous tissue.

Epithelial Tissue

Connects body surfaces and lines cavities and organs.

Connective Tissue

Supports, binds together, and protects tissues and organs.

Muscle Tissue

Responsible for movement; includes skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle.

Nervous Tissue

Composed of neurons and supporting cells, involved in transmission of impulses.

Cells vs Tissues vs Organs vs Organ Systems

Cells are the smallest living units, tissues are groups of similar cells, organs are structures made of different tissues, and organ systems are groups of organs working together.

Homeostasis

The body's ability to keep internal conditions stable and balanced.

Functions of the Integumentary System

Protection, temperature regulation, sensation, prevention of water loss, vitamin D production, and excretion.

Main layers of the skin

The three main layers are Epidermis, Dermis, and Hypodermis.

Epidermis

The thinnest outer layer of skin; acts as a barrier and contains keratin and melanin.

Dermis

The thicker middle layer of skin that contains blood vessels, nerves, and glands.

Hypodermis

The deepest layer of skin, made of fat and connective tissue for insulation and cushioning.

Structures in the skin

Includes hair follicles, hair shafts, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, blood vessels, nerve endings, and arrector pili muscles.

Functions of the Skeletal System

Support, protection, movement, blood cell production, mineral storage, and energy storage.

Major bones of the body

Includes skull, mandible, vertebral column, rib cage, clavicle, scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, pelvis, femur, patella, tibia, and fibula.

Types of joints

Immovable, slightly movable, and freely movable joints including hinge, ball-and-socket, pivot, gliding, and saddle joints.

Compact bone

Dense and hard outer layer of bone that supports weight.

Spongy bone

Lighter, porous bone found inside bones that reduces weight while providing strength.

Bone marrow

Soft tissue inside bones, with red marrow producing blood cells and yellow marrow storing fat.

Muscular system functions

Helps in movement, maintaining posture, producing heat, supporting organs, and stabilizing joints.

Skeletal muscle

Attached to bones, voluntary, used for movement.

Smooth muscle

Involuntary muscle found in organs, moves substances through organs.

Cardiac muscle

Involuntary muscle only found in the heart, responsible for pumping blood.

Agonist (prime mover)

The muscle that does most of the work to create a movement.

Antagonist

The muscle that opposes or reverses the movement.

Role of tendons

Connective tissues attaching muscles to bones, transferring force for movement.

Muscle contraction

Occurs when a muscle shortens and becomes tighter to produce force and movement.

Sliding Filament Model

Describes how muscle contraction occurs with actin and myosin fibers sliding past each other.

Nervous system

composed of neurons and supporting cells; responsible for transmitting impulses throughout the body.

Hormones

Chemical messengers produced by glands, regulating various bodily functions.

Central nervous system

Comprises the brain and spinal cord; coordinates and integrates body functions.

Peripheral Nervous system

Links the central nervous system to the rest of the body, enabling communication between the brain and limbs.

Neuron

Nerve cell the transits signals

Dendrites (part of neuron)

branches that receives signals

Cell Body(Soma)

Contains nucleus and controls cells activites

Axon

Carries signals away from cell body

Myelin Sheath

Insulations that speeds signal transmission

Axon Terminals

Pass signals to other cells

Reflex

Automatic response to a stimulus

Cerebrum

Thinking, memory, senses, voluntary movement

Cerebellum

Balance and coordination

Medulla

Breathing, heartbeat and other automatic functions

Endocrine system

Produces hormones to regulate body functions

Pituitary gland

Controls other endocrine glands

Thyroid gland

Regulates metabolism

Parathyroid glands

Regulates calcium levels

Adrenal glands

helps repond to stress

Pancreas

regulates blood sugar

Pineal gland

Regulates sleep cycles

Ovaries/Testes

Produce sex hormones

Negative feedback

Process that reverses a change to maintain balance

Cardiovascular system

Transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste through the blood, and helps regulate body temperature and support immunity.

Right atrium

receives deoxygenated blood

Right ventricle

pumps blood to lungs

Left atrium

receives oxygenated blood

Left ventricle

pumps blood to the body

Valves

prevent backflow of blood.

Septum

wall separating left and right sides.

Arteries

carry blood away from the heart

Veins

carry blood toward the heart

Capillaries

exchange materials between blood and tissues

Plasma

liquid portion of blood

Red blood cells

carry oxygen

White blood cells

fight infection

Platelets

help blood clot

What is the pathway of blood through the heart

Vena cave —>Right atrium —> Right Ventricle —> pulmonary artery —> lungs —> Pulmonary veins —>Left atrium —> Left ventricle —>Arota

Vena cava

returns blood to heart

Immune & Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system acts as the body’s drainage and defense network, maintaining fluid balance, absorbing fats, and transporting immune cells to fight infections

White blood cells (leukocytes)

cells that defend the body from infection.

Innate immunity

immediate, nonspecific defense

Adaptive immunity

specific defense that develops memory

Antigen

substance that triggers an immune response

Antibody

protein that binds to and helps destroy antigens

Lymph vessels

tubes that carry lymph throughout the body

Lymph

fluid containing water, proteins, and white blood cells.

Nose/Nasal cavity

filters and warms air

Pharynx

passageway for air

Larynx

voice box; protects airway

Trachea

windpipe carrying air to lungs

Bronchi

branches leading into lungs

Alveoli

tiny air sacs where gas exchange occurs

Diaphragm

muscle that aids breathing

Diffusion

gases move from areas of high concentration to low concentration

Mouth

begins digestion by chewing and saliva

Esophagus

transports food to stomach.

Stomach

breaks down food with acid and enzymes

Small intestine

completes digestion and absorbs nutrients

Large intestine

absorbs water and forms feces

Rectum

stores feces

Anus

eliminates waste

Liver

produces bile

Gallbladder

stores bile

Pancreas

produces digestive enzymes

Mechanical digestion

physical breakdown of food

Chemical digestion

breakdown of food by enzymes and acids

Enzyme

proteins that speed up digestion reactions.

Ingestion

food enters mouth

Digestion

food is broken down

Absorption

nutrients enter bloodstream

Elimination

waste leaves body