AP Psych Unit 4 real

Attributions

Explanations we make for why behavior happens. People naturally try to identify causes for their own actions and the actions of others

Dispositional Attributions

Explaining behavior by focusing on internal traits such as personality, motives, or character. Example: "She is successful because she works hard."

Situational Attributions

Explaining behavior by focusing on external factors like environment or circumstances. Example: "She succeeded because she had good opportunities."

Explanatory Style

A person's typical way of explaining positive and negative life events. This style can influence motivation and mental health.

Optimistic Explanatory Style

Tendency to see problems as temporary and limited rather than permanent. Example: "I failed this quiz because I was tired today."

Pessimistic Explanatory Style

Tendency to see problems as lasting, widespread, and personal. Example: "I failed because I'm terrible at school."

Actor/Observer Bias

Tendency to explain our own actions using situations, but explain others' actions using personality. Example: "I yelled because I was stressed; he yelled because he's rude."

Fundamental Attribution Error

Tendency to overvalue personality causes and undervalue situational causes when judging others.

Self-Serving Bias

Tendency to take credit for successes but blame failures on outside causes. Helps protect self-esteem.

Internal Locus of Control

Belief that your own effort and decisions mainly control life outcomes.

External Locus of Control

Belief that luck, fate, or outside forces mainly control outcomes.

Mere Exposure Effect

Repeated exposure to something often increases liking for it. Example: Hearing a song many times and starting to enjoy it.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

An expectation that affects behavior in a way that makes the expectation come true

Social Comparison

Judging yourself by comparing your abilities, success, or appearance to others.

Upward Social Comparison

Comparing yourself to someone doing better than you. Can inspire growth or hurt confidence.

Downward Social Comparison

Comparing yourself to someone doing worse than you. Can boost confidence temporarily.

Relative Deprivation

Feeling unhappy because others seem to have more success, money, or advantages than you.

Stereotype

A generalized belief about a group of people, often oversimplified and inaccurate.

Cognitive Load

The amount of mental effort being used. High cognitive load can reduce careful thinking.

Prejudice

A negative attitude or emotional judgment toward a group and its members.

Discrimination

Unfair treatment of people based on group membership such as race, gender, or age.

Implicit Attitudes

Automatic, unconscious beliefs or feelings toward people or groups.

explicit attitudes

attitudes that we consciously endorse and can easily report

Just-World Phenomenon

Belief that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

Out-Group Homogeneity Bias

Seeing members of another group as all being similar. Example: "They are all the same."

In-Group Bias

Tendency to favor your own group over others.

Ethnocentrism

Belief that your culture is superior to other cultures.

Belief Perseverance

Holding onto beliefs even after evidence proves them wrong.

Confirmation Bias

Seeking or noticing information that supports what you already believe.

Cognitive Dissonance

Mental discomfort caused by conflicting beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors. People often change beliefs to reduce discomfort.

Social Norms

Unwritten rules or expectations about how people should behave in a group or society. Example: standing in line and taking turns.

Social Influence Theory

The study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and actions are changed by the real or imagined presence of others.

Normative Social Influence

Conforming to a group because you want to be liked, accepted, or avoid rejection. Example: laughing at a joke everyone else laughs at.

Informational Social Influence

Conforming because you believe others know the correct answer or proper behavior. Example: copying others during an emergency.

Persuasion

The process of changing someone's attitudes, beliefs, or behavior through communication.

Elaboration Likelihood Model

Theory stating that persuasion happens through two routes: central route or peripheral route, depending on how much thinking is involved.

Central Route

Persuasion based on logic, facts, and careful thinking. Usually creates stronger and longer-lasting attitude change.

Peripheral Route

Persuasion based on surface factors such as attractiveness, emotions, popularity, or slogans rather than strong evidence.

Halo Effect

Tendency to assume someone has many positive qualities because of one favorable trait. Example: assuming an attractive person is also smart.

Foot-in-the-Door Technique

Strategy where a person first gets agreement to a small request, then follows with a larger request.

Door-in-the-Face Technique

Strategy where a person first makes a very large request that will likely be refused, then asks for a smaller request.

Conformity

Changing behavior or beliefs to match a group standard or expectation.

Obedience

Following direct commands from an authority figure, even when uncomfortable.

Individualism

Cultural value that emphasizes personal goals, independence, and individual achievement.

Collectivism

Cultural value that emphasizes group goals, cooperation, and loyalty.

Multiculturalism

Recognition and appreciation of many cultural backgrounds within one society.

Group Polarization

Tendency for group discussion to strengthen the opinions members already held.

Groupthink

Poor decision-making that occurs when a group values harmony and agreement more than critical thinking.

Diffusion of Responsibility

Reduced sense of personal responsibility when many people are present. Example: assuming someone else will help.

Social Loafing

Tendency to put forth less effort when working in a group than when working alone.

Deindividuation

Loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in a group, often leading to impulsive behavior.

Social Facilitation

Improved performance on simple or well-practiced tasks when others are watching.

False Consensus Effect

Tendency to overestimate how much other people share your opinions or behaviors.

Superordinate Goals

Shared goals that require cooperation between groups to achieve. Often reduces conflict.

Social Traps

Situations where actions that benefit individuals in the short term harm the group in the long term.

Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychologists

Psychologists who apply psychological principles to workplaces, employee behavior, and productivity.

Burnout

State of emotional, mental, and physical exhaustion caused by prolonged stress.

Altruism

Helping another person with no expectation of personal reward.

Prosocial Behavior

Any action intended to benefit or help others

Social Debt

Feeling of obligation after someone has helped you or given you something.

Social Reciprocity Norm

Social expectation that people should return favors and kindness.

Social Responsibility Norm

Belief that people should help those who depend on them or need assistance.

Bystander Effect

Tendency for people to be less likely to help when others are present.

Situational Variables

Environmental factors that influence behavior in a specific moment. Example: time pressure or crowd size.

Attentional Variables

Factors that affect whether a person notices a situation or emergency in the first place.

Psychodynamic Theory

Theory of personality that says behavior is influenced by unconscious conflicts, hidden motives, and early childhood experiences. Developed from the ideas of Sigmund Freud.

Unconscious Processes

Mental processes that occur outside of awareness but still influence thoughts, emotions, and behavior. Example: fears or motives you may not realize you have.

Ego Defense Mechanisms

Unconscious strategies used by the ego to reduce anxiety and protect self-image when facing stress or conflict.

Denial

Refusing to accept reality because it is too upsetting. Example: ignoring clear signs of a problem.

Displacement

Redirecting emotions from the real source to a safer target. Example: getting angry at family after a bad day at school.

Projection

Attributing your own unwanted thoughts or feelings to someone else. Example: accusing others of being jealous when you feel jealous.

Rationalization

Creating logical-sounding excuses to justify behavior or failure. Example: saying you did not want the award anyway.

Reaction Formation

Behaving in a way opposite to your true feelings. Example: acting overly friendly toward someone you dislike.

Regression

Returning to behaviors from an earlier stage of development during stress. Example: whining or sulking when overwhelmed.

Repression

Unconsciously pushing distressing thoughts or memories out of awareness.

Sublimation

Redirecting unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable activities. Example: channeling aggression into sports.

Projective Tests

Personality tests that use ambiguous stimuli to reveal unconscious thoughts or feelings. Example: interpreting inkblots or pictures.

Preconscious Mind

Thoughts and memories not currently in awareness but that can be accessed easily when needed.

Unconscious Mind

Part of the mind containing wishes, memories, and conflicts outside conscious awareness that may still affect behavior.

Humanistic Psychology

Perspective that emphasizes personal growth, free will, self-awareness, and the drive to reach potential. Associated with Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

unconditional positive regard

Acceptance and respect given regardless of mistakes or behavior. Helps people develop a healthy self-concept.

Self-Actualizing Tendency

Natural motivation to grow, improve, and become the best version of oneself.

Social-Cognitive Theory

Theory of personality that says behavior is shaped by the interaction of thoughts, learning experiences, and the environment.

Reciprocal Determinism

Idea that behavior, personal thoughts, and environment all influence one another continuously. Example: confidence can affect actions, which then change surroundings.

Self-Concept

The beliefs, ideas, and perceptions a person has about who they are.

Self-Efficacy

Belief in your ability to succeed at specific tasks or challenges. High self-efficacy often increases persistence.

Self-Esteem

Overall sense of self-worth and personal value

Trait Theories

Theories that describe personality through stable and lasting characteristics called traits.

Big Five Theory

Major trait theory stating personality can be described through five broad dimensions.

Agreeableness

Trait marked by kindness, trust, cooperation, and concern for others.

Openness to Experience

Trait marked by curiosity, creativity, imagination, and willingness to try new ideas.

Extraversion

Trait marked by sociability, energy, assertiveness, and enjoyment of being around others.

Conscientiousness

Trait marked by responsibility, organization, self-discipline, and dependability.

Emotional Stability (Neuroticism)

Trait marked by calmness, security, and resilience under stress; opposite of high neuroticism.

Personality Inventories

Self-report questionnaires designed to measure personality traits and patterns.

Factor Analysis

Statistical method used to identify clusters of related traits and reduce them into broader personality factors.

Drive-Reduction Theory

Theory stating that motivation comes from the desire to reduce internal tension caused by unmet biological needs. Example: hunger motivates eating.

Homeostasis

The body's tendency to maintain a stable internal state, such as temperature or blood sugar balance.

Arousal Theory

Theory stating that people are motivated to maintain an ideal level of alertness or stimulation.

Optimal Level of Arousal

The amount of stimulation that leads to best performance. Too little may cause boredom, too much may cause stress.