MGMT Exam 4

Motivation

The forces within the individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work

o   Any influence that triggers, directs, or maintains behavior

Content Theories

explain why people have different needs at different times

Process Theories

explain the processes through which needs are translated into behavior

The Motivation Gap

o   24% of workers are actively “disengaged” on any given day

o   25% of employers say their workers have low morale

o   40% of workers report trouble staying motivated

Content Theories of Motivation (4)

• Maslow’s Need Hierarchy: physiological → safety → belongingness → esteem → self-actualization

• Alderfer’s ERG Theory: existence → relatedness → growth

• Herzberg’s Theory: hygiene factors vs. motivators

• McClelland’s Learned Needs: need for affiliation vs. need for power vs. need for achievement

Maslow’s Hierarchy

• each individual has needs or feelings of deficiency that drive their behavior

• needs are in a hierarchy that an individual moves up as they satisfy levels of needs

• once a need is satisfied, then it is no longer motivating

5 Needs of Maslow’s Hierarchy

• Physiological/Survival- food, clothing, shelter, air

• Security- feeling safe, absence of pain, threat, or illness

• Affiliation- friendship, company, love, belonging (first clear step up from physical needs)

• Esteem- self-respect, achievement, recognition, prestige

• Self-Actualization- personal growth, self-fulfillment, realization of full potential

Deficit Principle

a satisfied need is NOT a motivator of behavior (people act to satisfy needs in deficit only)

Progression Principle

the 5 needs exist in a strict hierarchy of prepotency so a need at one level doesn’t activate until the need beneath it is satisfied

Alderfer’s ERG

• Consolidates Maslow’s Hierarchy into 3 categories

• Does NOT assume lower-level needs must be satisfied before higher-level needs can activate

• People aren’t motivated by compensation alone, they are also motivated by belonging, recognitions, and opportunity to grow

Alderfer’s 3 Need Categories

• Existence Needs- desires for physiological and material well-being

• Relationship Needs- desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships

• Growth Needs- desires for continued phycological growth and development

Frustration Regression

an already satisfied lower-level need becomes reactivated when a higher-level need is frustrated

Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory

Some variables prevent job dissatisfaction and some variables produce motivation

Hygiene Factors

basic needs that will prevent job dissatisfaction (working conditions, pay, coworker relations, policies, supervisor quality)

o   improvements lead to decreased job dissatisfaction

o   scale goes from dissatisfied to not dissatisfied

Motivators

cause high levels of motivation (interesting work, advancement, growth, recognition, responsibility, achievement)

o   improvements lead to increased job satisfaction

o   scale goes from not satisfied to satisfied/motivated

Herzberg in Action

• Amazon Warehouse Workers- good pay but low autonomy, repetitive tasks, automated feedback

  • led to high turnover and chronic dissatisfaction

• Zappos Culture Model- good pay, role flexibility, empowerments, consistent culture, strong recognition and feedback

  • led to legendary service and low voluntary turnover

McClelland’s Learned Needs

proposes that people acquire needs through their life experiences (interactions with the environment)

o   not a hierarchy, but degrees of each type of need/motive

o   uses a Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) to measure the strengths of 3 acquired needs (achievement, power, affiliation)

Need for Achievement (nAch)

desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks

*pushes for quality, takes calculated risks, wants to excel under pressure

Need for Power (nPower)

desire to control other people, influence their behavior, or be responsible for them (can be further classified as a need for Personal Power or Social Power)

*looks like someone stepping in, taking direction, assigning roles, and controlling the group’s trajectory

Need for Affiliation (nAff)

desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with other people

*values harmony, avoids conflict, prioritizes keeping the group together over winning big

Implications of McClelland’s Needs

• What matters: the conflict is NOT about the task, it’s about what each person is trying to get out of the situation

• Manager implication: if you missed the need, you mismanage the person

Core Characteristics Model (Hackman and Oldham)

the different characteristics/factors workers need to reach their full potential

*not everyone responds equally to enriched jobs (it depends on growth needs, strengths, skill levels, and satisfaction)

5 Characteristics

·       Skill Variety- uses different skills and talents

·       Task Identity- complete a whole, visible piece of work

·       Task Significance- impacts others inside or outside the org

·       Autonomy- freedom to decide how and when

·       Job Feedback- direct, clear info on performance

Psychological States

• meaningfulness of work

• responsibility for outcomes

• knowledge of results

Job Outcomes

• high motivation

• job satisfaction

• high performance

Job Outcomes/Psychological States matched with Core Characteristics

• Meaningfulness of Work = skill variety, task identity, task significance

• Autonomy = responsibility for work outcomes

• Feedback = knowledge of work results

Self-Determination Theory

This theory is concerned with innate psychological needs (different from physiological needs because they spur us towards growth

Core Job Dimensions → Critical Psychological States → Personal and Work Outcomes

Self-Determination Theory 3 Basic Needs

• Competence- control over environment

• Relatedness- sense of belongingness

• Autonomy- freedom to integrate experiences

Self-Determination Theory Positive Effects

• high intrinsic motivation

• high quality of work performance

• low absenteeism and turnover

Intrinsic vs. External Motivation

• Intrinsic Motivation = internal rewards, pleasure, and satisfaction with an undermined presence of external rewards

  • Ex: working hard on an assignment that isn’t graded

• External Motivation = emphasis on external goals/rewards, takes away the reward of simply doing the job

McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory Applied to Motivation

Acquired Needs Theory = what you WANT

• Achievement = I want to succeed

• Power = I want to influence

• Affiliation = I want connection

Different people = different dominant needs

SDT Theory Applied to Motivation

SDT Theory = what you NEED to stay motivated

• Competence = I can do this

• Autonomy = I have some control

• Relatedness = I’m not alone

Everyone needs all 3!

Extrinsic Motivation Continuum

Stage 1 (Amotivation): non-regulation, perceived sense of control

Stage 2 (Extrinsic Motivation):

o   external regulation = external

o   introjected regulation = somewhat external

o   identified regulation = somewhat internal

o   integrated regulation = internal

Stage 3 (Intrinsic Motivation): intrinsic regulation, completely internal

Valuing Success

• Having desired results and desired outcomes includes maximizing pleasure and minimizing gain

• BUT experiencing value effectiveness also includes the experience of success (vs. failure) in reaching a goal independent of the outcomes of that success

  • The difference between “I fell like success” (pride) and “I feel like a failure” (shame)

Regulatory Focus Theory

distinct ways cause people to see the world differently, deal with the world differently, and experience the world differently

o   Promotion = concerns with gains vs. non-gains (growth and advancement)

o   Prevention = concerns with non-losses vs. losses (risks and mistakes)

*Gen-Zers are more risk-averse (preventative) than Gen Xers, which are more promotion-oriented

Why Regulatory Focus Theory Matters

Self-insight: you learn where your attention goes, and which of your SDT needs is the lowest (competence, autonomy, relatedness)

Future Managers: prevention-dominant leaders are careful but can create anxiety, promotion framing boosts energy and growth

Tools: match framing to the person (regulatory fit), diagnose the need (competence, autonomy, relatedness)

Equity Theory

explains how social comparisons can motivate individual behavior

• personal rewards and corresponding personal inputs are compared to others’ rewards and their corresponding inputs

• results in perceived equity (comfort and satisfaction) or inequity (discomfort and desire to eliminate it)

Perceived Negative Equity vs. Perceived Positive Inequity

• Perceived negative inequity = attempt to restore equity by working less or quitting

• Perceived positive inequity = attempt to restore equity through extra effort

Expectancy Theory

managers should act to maximize expectancies, instrumentalities, and valences for others

Expectancy Theory- Maximizing Expectancy

• hire capable workers

• train and develop them continuously

• communicate goals/confidence in their skills

Expectancy Theory- Maximizing Instrumentality

• clarify psychological contracts

• communicate performance-outcome possibilities

• demonstrate performance-reward linkages

Expectancy Theory- Maximizing Valence

• understand individual needs

• adjust rewards to match these needs

Goal-Setting Theory

well-chosen and well-set goals can be motivating

o   goals provide direction

o   goals clarify performance expectations

o   goals establish a frame of reference

How to Make Goal-Setting Work

o   Set specific goals

o   Set realistic but challenging goals

o   Build goal acceptance and commitment

o   Clarify goal priorities

o   Provide feedback on goal accomplishment

o   Reward goal accomplishment

o   Allow participation when setting goals

Downsides to Goal-Setting

• Unrealistic goals lead to stress, burnout, and unethical behavior

• Impossible goals violate competence, autonomy, and relatedness simultaneously

Practical Test: is this person genuinely equipped to achieve this goal?

Reinforcement Theory (Positive vs. Negative)

• Positive Reinforcement = pleasant consequences strengthen desirable behavior

• Negative Reinforcement = removing an unpleasant stimulus strengthens desired behavior

Law of Effect

behavior followed by positive consequences is repeated

Operant Conditioning

we can shape behavior by controlling its consequences

Extinction

withdraw the reinforcer sustaining an undesirable behavior

Punishment

unpleasant consequences reduce frequency of undesirable behavior

Team

collection of people with complementary skills who work together to accomplish shared goals while holding each other accountable for performance results

Teamwork

process of people actively working together to accomplish common goals

Synergy

the creation of a whole that exceeds the sum of its parts

Formal vs. Informal Teams

Formal Teams- officially recognized and supported by the organization (departments, work units, teams, divisions)

Informal Teams- grow spontaneously from co-worker relationships (interest groups, friendship groups, support groups

Types of Teams (5)

• Committee- outside daily jobs, specific purpose, ongoing

• Project Team/Task Force- temporary group forms then disbands

• Cross Functional Team- members from different functional units

• Employee Involvement Team- meets regularly to drive continuous improvement

• Quality Circle- workers meet periodically to improve work quality

Virtual Teams

most real teams are hybrid, and these teams are easy to form but hard to lead

Advantages of Virtual Teams

• distance is irrelevant

• cost and time efficient

• easy to share files (everything is logged)

• softened interpersonal friction

Disadvantages of Virtual Teams

• social loafing is easy to hide

• goals drift, meeting frequency creeps up

• limited emotional and nonverbal cues

• “zoom fatigue” is real and operational

Sutton’s Prescription for Virtual Teams

every remote team needs a “prenup” or charter that spells out norms, dos and don’ts, and how disagreements are handled

Self-Managing Teams

• members hold collective authority over decisions normally made by managers

• team plans/schedules its own work, members train and review each other, members can do each other’s jobs (multitask), collective accountability for quality

  • the team leader facilitates but does not direct

  • it’s easy to call a team self-managing, but hard for it to actually be one

Traditional Team

supervisor assigns tasks, manager evaluates performance, top-down decisions, accountability flows through one person

Self-Managing Team Test

• are members collectively accountable?

• do they distribute their own work?

• do they train each other?

• do they assess each other?

Team Structures

• Less supervision DOES NOT EQUAL less structure (structure must be created by the team)

• Strong Structure- clear ownership, accountability, better outcomes

• Weak Structure- roles unclear, effort uneven, coordination breaks down

Effectiveness Equation

Effectiveness = Quality of Inputs + (Process Gains – Process Losses)

Effectiveness Inputs

• members and diversity

• nature of task

• setting and resources

• team size

Effectiveness Process

• norms and cohesion

• communication

• decision-making

• conflict handling

Effectiveness Outputs (3)

• task performance (did we accomplish the work?)

• member satisfaction (are people glad they were on this team?)

• future viability (could this team succeed again?)

Membership

right people, right talents

• ability matters and so does the mix

• homogenous teams are easier to manage but lazier in their thinking

• heterogenous teams are harder to run but better at complex tasks

Nature of Task

clear or complex?

• simple tasks need less interactions

• complex tasks need more communication, conflict handling, and team IQ

Setting

resources, info, support

• even a great team underperforms without the information, technology, rewards, and structure to do the work

Team Size

5-7 people is optimal for creative work

• bigger teams have exponentially more interactions to manage

• use odd numbers when voting matters

Tuckman’s 5 Stages

• Stage 1- Forming: polite and cautious (what do they want from me?)

• Stage 2- Storming: conflict over roles/goals/methods (high tension)

• Stage 3- Norming: rules form, cooperation and trust build

• Stage 4- Performing: mature/autonomous team, focused on results

• Stage 5- Adjourning: closure and recognition, disbandment

Critical Zone

phases 2 and 3

• if a team can’t navigate storming and norming, the process losses overwhelm the process gains

• diverse teams are especially exposed here

Norm

a behavior, rule, or standard that team members are expected to follow (if violated, the team pushes back)

How Leaders Build Good Norms

• model the behavior themselves

• reward what they want to see

• use feedback and reviews to reinforce

• train and onboard new members into them

• recruit people who already have them

• hold meetings to discuss progress

Team Virtuousness (Cameron’s 5 Pillars)

• Optimism- keep striving through setbacks

• Forgiveness- don’t assign blame

• Trust- be courteous and respectful

• Compassion- support each other in hard times

• Integrity- be honest in word and action

Cohesiveness

The degree members are attracted to and motivated to remain part of the team

• High cohesion = high conformity to norms

• If norms are bad, cohesion makes things worse

4 Cohesion Cases

• Best Case (positive norms and high cohesiveness): high performance, strong commitment to good norms

• Moderate Performance (positive norms and low cohesiveness): weak commitment to good norms

• Low-Moderate Performance (negative norms and low cohesiveness): weak commitment to bad norms

• Worst Case (negative norms and high cohesiveness): low performance, strong commitment to bad norms

3 Communication Networks

• Decentralized (interacting team)- everyone talks to everyone, best for complex tasks needing creativity

• Centralized (co-acting team)- all communication flows through one hub, efficient for simple, divisible tasks

• Restricted (counteracting team)- subgroups stop talking to each other, slow communication, sometimes useful during conflict

Task Behaviors (move work forward)

• Initiating

• Information sharing

• Summarizing

• Elaborating

• Opinion giving

Maintenance Behaviors (hold team together)

• Following

• Harmonizing

• Reducing tension

• Gatekeeping

• Encouraging

Disruptive Behaviors (avoid them/call them out)

• Aggressiveness

• Blocking

• Self-confessing

• Seeking sympathy

• Withdrawal

• Horsing around