chapter 12

behaviourism, 468

is a theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study only observable behaviour.

collectivism, 485

involves putting group goals ahead of personal goals and defining one’s identity in terms of the groups one belongs to

compensation, 466

involves efforts to overcome imagined or real inferiorities by devel- oping one’s abilities.

conscious, 460

consists of whatever one is aware of at a particular point in time.

Dark Triad, 483

refers to a specific combination of three traits leading to negative, anti- social behavioural tendencies: Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and narcissism

defence mechanism, 461

are largely unconscious reactions that protect a person from unpleasant emotions such as anxiety and guilt

displacement, 462

is diverting emotional feelings (usu- ally anger) from their original source to a substitute target.

Dunning-Kruger effect, 472

this refers to a cognitive bias in which individuals who possess low or no expertise or knowledge in a specific situ- ation are unaware of those deficits.

ego, 460

is the decision-making component of personality that operates according to the reality principle.

factor analysis, 458

correlations among many variables are analyzed to identify closely related clusters of variables.

fixation, 464

Is a failure to move forward from one stage to another as expected.

hierarchy of needs, 474

a systematic arrange- ment of needs, according to priority, in which basic needs must be met before less basic needs are aroused.

hindsight bias, 490

the ten- dency to mould one’s interpretation of the past to fit how events actually turned out.

humanism, 472

is a theoretical orientation that emphasizes the unique qualities of humans, especially their freedom and their potential for personal growth.

id, 460

is the primitive, instinctive component of personality that operates according to the pleasure principle.

identification, 463

is bolstering self-esteem by forming an imaginary or real alli- ance with some person or group.

incongruence, 472

is the degree of disparity between one’s self-concept and one’s actual experience.

individualism, 485

involves putting personal goals ahead of group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group memberships.

model, 470

is a person whose behaviour is observed by another.

narcissism, 482

is a personality trait marked by an inflated sense of importance, a need for attention and admiration, a sense of entitlement, and a ten- dency to exploit others.

observational learning, 470

occurs when an organism’s responding is influ- enced by the observation of others, who are called models.

Oedipal complex, 465

children manifest erotically tinged desires for their opposite- sex parent, accompanied by feelings of hostility toward their same-sex parent

personality, 457

refers to an individual’s unique constellation of con- sistent behavioural traits. Let’s look more closely at the concept of traits.

personality trait, 457

is a durable disposition to behave in a particular way in a variety of situations.

phenomenological approach, 472

which assumes that one has to appreciate individuals’ per- sonal, subjective experiences to truly understand their behaviour.

pleasure principle, 460

which demands immediate gratification of its urges.

preconscious, 460

contains material just beneath the surface of awareness that can easily be retrieved.

projection, 462

Is attributing one’s own thoughts, feelings, or motives to another

projective tests, 488

ask participants to respond to vague, ambiguous stimuli in ways that may reveal the participants’ needs, feel- ings, and personality traits.

psychodynamic theory, 459

include all of the diverse theories descended from the work of Sigmund Freud, which focus on unconscious mental forces.

psychosexual stages, 464

*stages* are developmental periods with a characteristic sexual focus that leave their mark on adult personality

rationalization, 462

which is creating false but plau- sible excuses to justify unacceptable behaviour.

reaction formation, 462

is behaving in a way that’s exactly the opposite of one’s true feelings.

reality principle, 460

which seeks to delay gratification of the id’s urges until appro- priate outlets and situations can be found.

reciprocal determinism, 470

is the idea that internal mental events, external environmental events, and overt behaviour all influence one another.

regression, 462

is a reversion to immature pat- terns of behaviour.

repression, 462

is keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious.

self-actualization, 474

which is the need to fulfill one’s potential; it is the highest need in Maslow’s motiva- tional hierarchy.

self-actualizing persons, 475

are people with exceptionally healthy personalities, marked by continued personal growth.

self-concept, 472

is a collection of beliefs about one’s own nature, unique qualities, and typical behaviour.

self-efficacy, 470

refers to one’s belief about one’s ability to perform behaviours that should lead to expected outcomes.

self-enhancement, 485

involves focusing on positive feed- back from others, exaggerating one’s strengths, and seeing oneself as above average.

self-regulation, 474

as the self’s ability to alter its actions and behaviours

self-report inventories, 487

are personality tests that ask individuals to answer a series of questions about their character- istic behaviour.

sublimation, 463

which occurs when unconscious, unacceptable impulses are channelled into socially acceptable, perhaps even admirable, behaviours.

superego, 460

is the moral component of per- sonality that incorporates social standards about what represents right and wrong.

unconscious, 460–461

contains thoughts, memories, and desires that are well below the sur- face of conscious awareness but that nonetheless exert great influence on behaviour.