Social Psychology: Notable Studies (Weeks 9-12)

1936 - Sherif Study

• Study in which participants were exposed to the autokinetic effect - a visual illusion in which a small, stationary dot of light in a dark room appears to move - and were asked how much the light moved

• Study in which participants joined other participants in a small group and told to say answers out loud

• Study in which there were four trials

• It was an ambiguous and difficult task

• Participants could easily doubt their own judgment, “Did it move one inch or was it two?”

• Participants relied on others’ judgements as valid information

1956 - Asch Line Judgement Study

• Study in which participants judged whether two lines were the same length (very easy task, no ambiguity about the correct answer)

• Study in which there was a group of confederates; after a couple of rounds, the confederates start to give an obviously wrong answer

• When participants were alone, they answered correctly 100% of the time

• In the presence of the (wrong) confederates, they erroneously conformed to majority on 1/3 of the trials

  • 75% of participants conformed at least once

1966 - Freedman and Fraser Study

• Study which revealed “Foot-in-the-Door” Reason-Based Compliance

  • Condition 1: Will you display this large sign in your yard?

  • Condition 2: Will you display this small sign in your window? followed by “Will you display this large sign in your yard?

• Study which found the percentage of those who agreed to the large sign:

  • Condition 1: 17%

  • Condition 2: 76%

1969 - Carlsmith and Gross Study

• Study in which participants were to make some phone calls for a confederate

• But first,

  • Condition 1: participants shocked confederate’s hands when he got an answer wrong (shocks were known to be painful and unpleasant)

  • Condition 2: participants rung a bell with confederate got an answer wrong

• Result: more participants agreed to make calls after shocking the participant as opposed to ringing the bell; they were probably feeling more guilty

  • 75% vs 25%

1972 - Isen and Levin Study

• Study in which participants were given a cookie (positive mood) or not (neutral mood)

• Asked if they would serve as a confederate for a quick experiment

  • Half told their role was to help the “real” participant

  • Half told their role was to hinder the “real” participant

• Result: positive mood increased compliance only when the task involved helping someone else, not hindering them

1975 / 1984 - Cialdini Study

• Study which revealed the Reciprocal Concessions Technique, a type of reason-based compliance

1976 - Isen et al. Study

1986 - Burger Study

• Study in which desserts were sold at Santa Clara University arts fair for the Psych Club

  • Condition 1: 1 cupcake + 2 cookies, 75 cents

  • Condition 2: 1 cupcake for 75 cents, and we’ll throw in 2 cookies

• Study which found the percentage of those who purchased:

  • Condition 1: 40%

  • Condition 2: 73%

1993 - Prentice and Miller Study

• Study which studied the social construction of emergency situations as non-emergencies

  • This happens when certain behavior becomes normalized (such as inebriation, which can actually be serious)

  • Perpetuation of unsupported social norms

• Study which found that Individuals (may actually) conform (change behavior) to their mistaken estimates of the group norm

  • Behavior change was more prominent in males than females

  • Normative social influence does not involve behavior change, which is why there is a discrepancy between these results and the tendency for women to (temporarily) conform more than men

1994 - Wegner Study

• Study which discovered / coined Ideomotor Action

1996 - Bargh et. al Study

• Study which found that people who are mimicked are more prosocial afterward

• Study which found that mimicry may build social rapport and lead to more pleasant social interactions

2006 - Cialdini et al. Study

• Study in which signs were placed in Petrified Forest National Park to stop people from taking petrified wood with them:

  • Sign 1: “Many past visitors have removed the petrified wood from the park, changing the state of the Petrified Forest. Please help stop this problem”

  • Sign 2: “The majority of past visitors have left the petrified wood in the park, preserving the natural state of the Petrified Forest”

• Results: Theft was four times lower for Sign 2 than Sign 1

• When trying to change norms, people often highlight how common it is for people to do the wrong thing, but this encourages people to continue doing the wrong thing

• In trying to promote positive behavior, descriptive norms are beneficial

• However, in trying to reduce negative behavior, descriptive norms may backfire

2007 - Schultz et al. Study

• Study in which CA homeowners received messages about how much electricity they used in previous weeks and how much the average use was in their neighborhood

• Study which found that people who consumed more than average started using less; people who consumed less than average started using more (unintended effect)

• To counteract the unintended negative effect, the info was accompanied by a smiley or frowny face to indicate approval or disapproval

2009 - Burger Study

• Replicated at 165 volts “Paper”

• Examined a critical threshold in previous Milgram Experiments

  • 150V - now-or-never moment for participants (4/5 participants who didn’t stop at this point never stopped)

  • Asked a battery of mental health questions

  • 70% complied today vs 82% in 1960

    • Not different (statistically speaking)

1958 - 1959 - Harlow’s Monkeys Study

• Study with two monkeys in a cage

• Cloth Mother

  • Looked like a monkey, but could not give milk

  • Approached when threatened and needed comfort

  • Infant monkeys preferred warmth and comfort over food

• Wire Mother

  • Did not look like a monkey, but could give milk

  • Approached when hungry

• Study which suggests that the need to belong is even stronger than our need for food

• Study which found that monkeys raised in either condition failed to develop properly

  • They became fearful, asocial, sexually dysfunctional

• Even when they had the warmth and comfort, they still experienced these things because having either condition rather than both conditions at the same time is awful

1964 - Jones Study

• Study which found that the easiest way to get someone to like you is to reward them, by making them feel good when they around you

1978 - Kelly & Thiabault Study

• Study which discovered social exchange theory; that people tend to seek out interaction that have more rewards than costs, or have the smallest amount of “excess cost” possible

1978 - Walster et al. Study

• Study which developed Equity Theory

1978 - Ainsworth Study

• Simple test to assess infant attachment to a caregiver

• Infant and caregiver enter an unfamiliar room with toys

• Stranger walks in, caregiver leaves, infant distressed

• Caregiver returns (after three minutes)

• How does infant respond when caregiver returns?

1982 - Bowlby Study

• Study which found that children rely on parents for security, which allows them to explore the environment and learn; moving on from having been born with few or no survival skills

1987 - Rothberg and Jones Study

• Study which found that suicide and crime rates are higher for single and divorced people

1990 - Gove et al. Study

• Study which found that married people fare better than unmarried in many measures of well-being

1995 - Baumeister & Leary Study

• Study which found that the need to belong is universal

1996 - Uchino et al. Study

• Study which found that social support strengthens cardiovascular, immune, and endocrine systems

1996 - Baldwin et al. Study

• Study in which participants listed ten important relationships

• Indicated their attachment style in each one

• Over 50% of participants had experienced all 3 major attachment styles at one point or another

1998 - Cooper et al. Study

• Study which found securely attached people are more likely to be married

1998 - Klohnen and Bera Study

• Study which found that securely attached people have fewer martial problems and report the greatest satisfaction

2003 - Fraley and Spieker Study

• Study which found that individuals classified as secure / anxious / avoidant in their attachment styles at age 1 are similarly classified at age 18

1950 - Westgate West Festinger et al. Study

• Study in which researchers asked students who lived in student housing to list their closest friends

  • 2/3 of the people they listed lived in the same building

  • 41% of people living in adjacent rooms listed each other as friends; only 10% of those who lived on opposite ends of a hallway did

  • Residents near stairwells formed 2X as many friendships as those in the middle

  • Stairwells meant more interaction opportunities

1953 - Burgess & Wallin Study

• Study which found that engaged couples tend to be very similar, especially when it comes to demographic variables (e.g. social class / religion) and physical characteristics (e.g. health / physical attractiveness)

• Study which found that married couples tend to be more similar than chance on core personality characteristics (like extraversion or genuineness)

• Study which found that interracial couples tend to be more similar in personality than same-race couples

1956, 1961 - Newcomb Study

• Study in which male college students filled out a survey once a week

  • They rated how much they liked their housemates

  • As they got to know each other better, liking was predicted by similarity

1961 - Byrne “Bogus Stranger Paradigm” Study

• Study in which participants read responses to personality questionnaire filled out by someone else (a “bogus stranger”)

  • They rated the person

• Study which found that the more similar the stranger was to the participant, the more the participant liked him

1964 - Levinger Study

• Study which found that if two people have complementary personality traits, they might work well together

  • E.g. a dependent person with a nurturer

1968 - Zajonc Study

• Study in which participants were showed a list of Turkish words

  • Some words shown 0, 1, 2, 5, 10, or 25 times

  • They rated whether the word meant something good or something bad

• Study in which the more times participants saw a word, the more they assumed it referred to something good, that is, the more they liked it

• Study which has been replicated with many other things, such as

  • College yearbook photos

  • Chinese pictographs (2011 Reis et al. Study)

1970 - Levinger Study

• Study which found that despite complementing each other’s traits, “opposites attract” is not supported; similarity in other areas like personality traits, interests / hobbies, or backgrounds is needed 9to be compatible

• Thus, the belief that “opposites attract” is not supported by research

• Similarity rules; complements are the exception

1971 - Cross & Cross Study

• Study which found there is lots of agreement amongst cultures in terms of physical attractiveness

• Study which found that (across cultures) infants at 1 year old are more likely to play with attractive adults than unattractive ones

1975 - Sigall and Ostrove Study

• Study which found that it is less likely to be convicted of crimes and sentences are given lighter if convicted, up to 87% of longer sentences are applies to “unattractive people”

  • THAT IS CRAZY!

1976 - Bar-Tal and Saxe Study

• Study which found similarly “unattractive” women (vs. men) have more negative experiences at work

1976 - Beck et al. Study

• Study which found there are large differences in what people think is attractive

1977 - Snyder et al. Study

• Study in which male and female participants spoke over the phone and recorded their conversation

• Men were given a profile with a picture of the woman they were talking to

  • Half got an attractive picture, and half got an unattractive picture

• Later RAs listened to and rated the recording of the women only, to the photo

• Study which found that women were rated as warmer and more socially skilled if they had talked to a man who thought they were attractive

  • This is because if men thought the woman was attractive, they were more engaged and spoke to her more nicely, which elicited those positive qualities from her

1983 - Maret Study

• Study which found that Asians, Blacks, and Whites share roughly the same opinions of which Asian, Black, and White faces are the most attractive

1985 - Ewy Study

• Study which found that infants at 3 months old prefer (stare longer at) attractive vs. unattractive faces

1987 - Zajonc et al. Study

• Study in which couples who were married 25+ years brought in current photos and photos from their 1st year of marriage

• Study in which they cropped the photos; asked unbiased people to rate how similar they looked at Time 1 and Time 2

• Study in which, after 25 years of marriage, couples looked more alike than they did as newlyweds

• Study which reveals that interaction promotes similarity

• This occurred because the couples

  • Shared experiences (both positive and negative) - happiness produces crow’s feet around the eyes; a lifetime of sadness tends to put lines around the mouth

  • Live in the same environment - may converge in skin tone, wrinkles

  • Household - similar diets, stressors, health, etc.

1989 - Martin & Bumpass Study

• Study which found that half of all marriages in the US result in divorce

1990 - Fallon Study

• Study which found there are large differences between cultures and subcultures, even across time; in what they find to be attractive

1991 - Frieze et al. Study

• Study in which on a 1-5 point scale, a 1 point increase in attractiveness results in about $3,500 more per year on average for the same job

1991 - Aron et al. Study

• Study in which married couples rated 90 trait adjectives on how accurately they described themselves and their spouse, then did a distracting task; then came back and rated on a computer how much their spouse was “like me” or “not like me”

1992 / 1999 - Gottman & Levenson Study

• Study which found four behaviors that could be used to predict divorce with 93% accuracy in 15-minute interactions

  • Contempt - expressing disdain or scorn

  • Criticism - expressing negative evaluations, being overly critical

  • Defensiveness - trying to “play the victim” and not accepting responsibility for your part

  • Stonewalling - withdrawing from the conflict; ignoring and/or avoiding the issue

1995 - West & Brown Study

• Study which found that, if injured, attractive women are more likely to receive help from a man

1998 - Slater et al. Study

• Study which confirms the idea that people are more attractive than others if babies stare at them longer than others

2000 - Myers Study

• Study which found that marriages are less satisfying today than they were 30 years ago

2000 - Aron et al. Study

• Study which found that stronger romantic bonds are created when couples engage in playful teasing and nicknames; these correlate with marital satisfaction - these become harder with time (especially after children)

2000 - Gottman and Levenson Study

• Study which found that the presence of negative affect predicts early divorce (0-7 years) and that the absence of positive affect predicts later divorce (7-14 years)

• In other words, study which found that

  • A long-lasting relationship is not just about having little conflict and negative emotions; but that, even without the negative things, a lack of positive moments will not bring a long-lasting relationship either

2002 - Murry et al. Study

• Study which found that stronger romantic bonds are created when partners’ look at the bright side

• Study in which participants were asked to rate 21 of their partner’s virtues and faults, where happy couples idealize their partner relative to the other’s self-perceptions

• Study in which, when asked to describe partner’s faults, satisfied partners engaged in two forms of idealization

  • Gave “yes, but” responses

  • Found virtue in faults

2004 - Gable et al. Study

• Study which found that stronger romantic bonds are created when partners respond positively to good news in each other’s life

2008 - Glied and Neidell Study

• Study which found that growing up in an area with fluoridated water (which improves the quality of teeth) is associated with a 4% average increase in woman’s annual earnings, but not men’s

2008 - Finkel and Eastwick Study

• Study in which there was 2-mintue speed dating

• Participants were told to rate feelings of sexual desire and chemistry

• People who reported high passion for one person were reciprocated

• People who reported high passion for many people were not reciprocated

  • This is because people can detect whether interest is targeted or promiscuous

• Thus, romance / passion promotes commitment

1961 - Sherif et al. Study - Robbers Cave Experiment

• Study in which 22 5th grade boys participated in a 2.5 week summer camp at Robbers Cave State Park, in which they were divided into groups of 11

• Phase 1: Groups independently engaged in activities designed to foster unit (e.g. prepare meals, pitch tents)

• Phase 2: 5-day tournament; winners got medals and pocket knives

• Conflict

• Phase 3: Researchers attempted to “reverse” prejudice + reduce conflict

• Reducing Conflict

• Attempt #1: Mere Exposure

  • The boys were brought together in noncompetitive settings

  • This failed… the boys insulted each other, fought, etc.

  • This has been replicated in many future studies

• Attempt #2: Superordinate Goals

  • Researchers had both groups work together for a common goal

    • Disrupted the camp’s water supply, made supply truck “break down", etc.

  • This worked… prejudice went away

    • On the ride home, the boys took the same bus, shared candy, etc.

• Study which found that despite no differences in background, appearance, or history of conflict; intergroup hostility developed anyway

  • In other words, all that is required for intergroup conflict is economic competition; economic competition is sufficient for intergroup bias

• Study which found that competition against outgroups often increases ingroup cohesion

  • The intergroup conflict led the ingroups themselves to adopt group names, social norms, a created and shared social identity, etc.

• Study which found that intergroup conflict can be reduced by forcing groups to work together and depend on each other

  • Being successful in the military requires complete cooperation

  • Being successful in business requires cooperation with coworkers

1972 - Levine and Campbell Study

• Study which came up with the Realistic Group Conflict Theory

1976 - Duncan “Shoving Study”

• Study in which white participants watched a video of two men in a heated discussion, and coded behaviors into categories

  • At one point, one of the individuals in the heated discussion (Black or White) shoves the other

• Study which found that those who observed a White man shoving tended to code the behavior as “playing around” while those that observed a Black man doing the same thing tended to code the behavior as “aggressive behavior”

1976 - Cialdini et al. Study

• Study which formulated the psychology concept of “Basking in Reflected Glory”

1977 - Gaertner & Dovidio Study

• Study in which white participants were told they would be interacting with Blacks

• 1 person or a group (all confederates)

• All were seated in individual rooms and spoke through an intercom system

• Suddenly, one of the confederates indicated he was having a medical emergency; the confederate was either White or Black

• How many participants left their cubicles to go help?

  • 1 person: Most helped, whether Black or White

  • Group: Most help the White victim (75%), but not the Black victim (38%)

• Explanation

  • 1 person: If you do not help, you are clearly racist

  • Group: You can refuse to help, because there are others who will

• Study which found that people are only racist relative to their relationship to the group

1978 - Tajfel et al. Study

• Study which found that self-esteem can also be enhanced by negative evaluations of outgroups

• People are motivated for ingroup success relate to the outgroup

  • e.g. “Either I am good, or you are not good”

1979 - Tajfel and Turner Study

• Study which found that a person’s self-concept and self-esteem are derived from both

  • Personal identity and own accomplishments

  • Status and accomplishments of groups that they belong to

• People are motivated to view their ingroup favorably because this enhances self-concept and self-esteem

1980 - Quattrone and Jones “Princeton and Rutgers Homogeneity” Study

• Study which formulated the Psychology concept of “Outgroup homogeneity effect”

• Study which found that people see more variability of habit and opinion in their ingroup than in their outgroup

• Study in which Princeton and Rutgers students watches a videotape of another student making a simple decision, e.g. whether to “listen to rock or classical music” and the taped student was either from Princeton or Rutgers

• Study in which participants were then asked what percentage of students from the same university as the student in the video would make the same choice

• Study which found higher percentage estimates when viewing members of the other university

1989 - Devine et al. Study

• Study which formulated the “Dual Process Theory of Prejudice”

1990 - Bodenhausen Study

• Study in which participants came into the lab early in the morning or late at night

• Study in which participants identified themselves as “morning people” or “night people”

• Study which asked, what should happen to these different people in these different conditions?

• Study in which participants read scenarios in which the main character (an athlete) belonged to different groups and was accused of engaging in undesirable behaviors (cheating) and then asked if the main character was guilty

• Study in which participants at the “low point” of their circadian rhythms (“night people” in the AM and “morning people” in the PM) were more likely to rely on stereotypes when they made judgments about the main character

• Study which found that “night people” who tested in the morning were more likely to say the athlete cheated

1991 - Crocker et al. Study

• Study in which White and Black participants were given either positive or negative feedback

  • ½ thought the other person could see them through a one-way mirror

  • ½ did not think this

• Study which found that the White participants’ self-esteem increased after positive feedback and decreased after negative feedback, no matter what they thought about the other person

• Study which found that Black participants’ self-esteem changed only if they thought the other person could NOT see them

1995 - Steele and Aronson Study

• Study which found that African-American students performed worse on a verbal test if they thought it was testing their intellectual ability

1995 - Greenwald and Banaji Study

• Study which formulated the “Implicit Association Test”

1997 - Fein and Spencer Study

• Study in which participants were told that they failed (self-esteem threatened) or aced (self-esteem affirmed) an intelligent test

• Study in which participants watched an interview of a job applicant who was either clearly Jewish or clearly Non-Jewish

• Study in which participants then rated the job applicant and reported their personal self-esteem

• Study which found that participants who received negative feedback on the intelligence test denigrated the Jewish applicant and the negative ratings of the Jewish candidate thus boosted their self-esteem

1999 - Spencer, Steele, and Quinn Study

• Study which found that women performed worse on a math test if they were told there was a gender difference in performance

• Study which found that when the test was described as one that yields gender differences, it aroused the stereotype threat among the female participants, and their performance dipped

1999 - Sinclair and Kuda Study

• Study in which participants were praised or criticized by a doctor and the doctor was either Black or White

• Study in which participants then performed a lexical decision task

  • Participants saw strings of letters and had to decide as quickly as they could if the strings were words or not

• Study which found that participants who had received positive feedback from the Black doctor were faster to recognize words related to medicine

• Study which found that participants were equally fast at recognizing words related to medicine and to Black stereotypes regardless of whether they receive positive or negative feedback from the White doctor

2001 - Glick and Fiske Study

• Study of 15,000 men across 19 nations that were interviewed

  • “Women are incompetent… so men should protect them and take care of them” (Paternalism)

  • “Women are more kind and warm to others… so their place is raising children, not working in the harsh business world”

• Study which thus found that benevolent and hostile sexism often coexist

2001 - Payne Study

• Study which found that participants more quickly identified a weapon when paired with a Black (vs. a white face), but not a neutral object

2002 - Wueller and Smith Study

• Study which formulated the Psychology concept of “Subtyping,” a form of bias persistence

2007- Dardenne, Dumont, and Bollier Study

• Study which found that women treated in a paternalistic fashion later performed worse on an intellectual test because of the self-doubt created

2008 - Lau, Kay, and Spencer Study

• Study which found that women who deviate from typical gender norms are treated with hostility

2013 - Critcher and Ferguson Study

• Study in which half the participants were told to conceal their sexual identity during a mock interview; whereas the other half of participants were able to say whatever they wanted

• Study in which the act of concealment was mentally taxing and found that participants were less able to perform well on subsequent tasks

• Study which thus found that disclosing one’s sexuality or gender identity has meaningful physical and psychological effects

1898 - Triplett Study

• Study which recorded the fastest times when cyclists competed directly against each other on the same track at the same time

• Study which found that cyclists pedaled faster when they were around other people than when they were alone

• Study which discovered social facilitation, or the phenomenon that the presence of others facilitates performance

1898 - Triplett Study 2

• Study in which researchers brought 40 kids into the namesake’s lab and had them turn fishing reels as fast as they could

• Study in which the children turned the reels faster when they were around other kids doing the same thing

• Study which found the same effect is found when the others are not doing the same task, but are simply there

• Study which corresponds with the fact that, in animal species, ants dig more earth, fruit flies preen more, centipedes run faster, and dogs eat more when others around

1920 - Allport Study

• Study which had Harvard and Radcliffe students refute philosophical arguments as best as they could in a five-minute period

• Study which found that the students did better at this task when they worked alone than when they worked in the presence of others

1968 - Cottrell et al. Study

• Study in which participants were given a list of ten nonsense words and asked to pronounce two of the words 1, 2, 5, 10, or 25 times, making some words more familiar than others

• Study in which participants were then given a pseudorecognition task in which

  • Words flashed on a screen were too fast to recognize

  • They were told to identify the words, or guess if they could not

  • None of the presented words were actually in the study list

• Study in which participants completed this task either

  • Alone

  • In the presence of two students who watched attentively (evaluative audience)

  • In the presence of two blindfolded “observers” (cannot evaluate performance)

• Study which wanted to find out how often the participants guessed a dominant word (one that had been pronounced 25 times) and how does this rate vary across conditions

• Study which found that the concern for others, not mere presence, is responsible for social facilitation

1969 - Moscovici and Zavalloni Study

• Study in which French participants expressed opinions

  • about a) Charles deGaulle and b) Americans

    • First, individually

    • Then, as a group

• The group opinion of Charles deGaulle was even more positive as a group

• The group opinion of Americans was even more negative as a group

1972 - Duval and Wicklund Study

• Study which formulated Self-Awareness Theory

1975 - Fenigstein et al. Study

• Study which formulated the idea of individuation

1976 - Diener et al. Study

• Study in which researchers recorded the behavior of 1,000 trick-or-treaters and

  • Noted if they were a) alone, or b) in a group

  • Observed that half of the children were a) asked their names (which individuated them, making them no longer anonymous), and that half of the children were b) not asked their names

  • On a table in the entry way, there was a bowl of candy; children were told they could take one piece of candy

  • Researcher “had to go do something” and left; said kids could take candy and leave

  • Researchers wanted to find out if trick-or-treaters would take more than their share

• Study which found that individuals who were deindividuated were those that stole more than their share

1976 - Diener & Wallborn Study

• Study in which participants solved a series of anagrams; and were asked to stop when they hears a bell

  • They were working at either

    • a) a typical desk

    • b) a desk with a mirror

• Study which found that 75% of those at the typical desk kept working past the bell and that only 10% of those by the mirror kept working past the bell

1977 - Savin-Williams Study

• Study which showed that leaders are socially skilled

1978 - Markus Study

• Study in which participants were told to go into an adjacent room to wait for other participants to arrive

  • While they were in there, they had to put on “special experiment gear,” such as

    • Taking off shoes (well-learned task)

    • Put oversized socks on top of their own socks (novel tasks)

    • Put oversized lab shoes on (novel task)

    • Put oversized lab coat on (novel task)

  • While changing, participants were either

    • Alone

    • With another person who was watching attentively

    • With a repairman who was working with his back to the participant

1982 - Michaels et al. Study

• Study in which researchers secretly watched pool players who were playing alone at a student union and rated as “skilled” or “unskilled”

• Study in which researchers then walked up to the pool table and watched them in which

  • skilled players started playing better

  • unskilled players started playing worse

• Study which thus confirms the Psychology concept of Social Facilitation

1985 - Ellyson & Dovidio Study

• Study which showed that it is less likely for low-power people to speak up and more likely to inhibit their speech

1989 - Moreland & Levine Study

• Study which showed that it is more likely for low-power people to restrict their body posture

1993 - Pessin Study

• Study which found that the presence of others can also inhibit performance on arithmetic, memory tasks, and maze learning

1993 - Fiske Study

• Study which defines power as the ability to control one’s own and others’ resources / outcomes

  • “Power corrupts”

  • “Money is the root of all evil”

• Study which shows that powerful people stereotype more

1995 - Baumeister and Leary Study

• Study which shows that we have a psychological need to be with others

1995 - Bargh et al. Study

• Study which shows that powerful people are more likely to touch others and approach them closely

1995 - Rudman & Borgida Study

• Study which found that powerful people are more likely to forwardly flirt with others

1997 - Lafrance et al. Study

• Study which found that power explains gender differences in empathic accuracy

1998 - DePaulo & Friedman Study

• Study which showed that powerful people violate politeness-related norms of communication and act rudely toward others