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Scientific Method

A systematic process for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge.

Strong Inferences

A systematic approach to hypothesis testing that involves formulating multiple hypotheses and designing experiments to test them.

Phylogenetics

The study of evolutionary relationships among biological entities, often represented in a phylogenetic tree.

Cladogram

A tree diagram showing relationships based on shared characteristics.

Phylogram

A tree where branch lengths represent evolutionary change.

Dated Phylogeny

A phylogenetic tree with time scales indicating when divergences occurred.

Monophyly

A group containing an ancestor and all its descendants.

Paraphyly

A group containing an ancestor and some, but not all, descendants.

Polyphyly

A group that does not include the most recent common ancestor.

Synapomorphy

A shared derived trait used to define a clade.

Synplesiomorphy

A shared ancestral trait not useful for defining clades.

Allopatric Speciation

Speciation that occurs due to geographic isolation.

Sympatric Speciation

Speciation that occurs without geographic barriers, often through reproductive isolation.

Parapatric Speciation

Speciation that occurs in adjacent populations diverging.

Cell Wall

Provides structure and protection to plant cells.

Chloroplasts

The site of photosynthesis in plant cells.

Vacuole

Stores nutrients and waste products in plant cells.

Cytoplasm

Gel-like substance where organelles are suspended in plant cells.

Nucleus

Contains genetic material in plant cells.

Primary Cell Wall

Flexible wall formed during cell growth.

Secondary Cell Wall

Thicker wall providing additional strength, formed after growth.

Plasmodesmata

Channels in the cell wall facilitating communication between plant cells.

Chloroplast Structure

Composed of outer membrane, inner membrane, stroma, and thylakoids.

Light Reaction

Converts light energy into ATP and NADPH in thylakoid membranes.

Calvin Cycle

Uses ATP and NADPH to convert CO2 into glucose in the stroma.

Photorespiration

A process reducing photosynthetic efficiency by consuming oxygen and releasing CO2.

C4 Photosynthesis

Separates initial CO2 fixation and the Calvin cycle spatially, adapted to high light and temperature.

CAM Photosynthesis

Fixes CO2 at night and performs the Calvin cycle during the day, adapted to arid conditions.

Mitosis

A process of cell division resulting in two identical daughter cells.

Meiosis

A type of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half, producing four genetically diverse gametes.

Haploid

A cell with one set of chromosomes (n).

Diploid

A cell with two sets of chromosomes (2n).

Gametes

Reproductive cells (sperm and eggs).

Gametophyte

The haploid stage in the life cycle that produces gametes.

Sporophyte

The diploid stage that produces spores.

Alternation of Generations

The life cycle pattern alternating between haploid and diploid phases.

Plant Systematics

Study of plant diversity and relationships.

Plant Taxonomy

Classification and naming of plants.

Nomenclature

Rules for naming plants, such as binomial nomenclature.

Taxonomic Categories

Levels including Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species.

Phylogenetic Trees

Diagrams depicting evolutionary relationships among species.

Plant Speciation Mechanisms

Processes like allopatric and sympatric speciation that lead to the formation of new species.