Theory

No questions on the specifics of LR and RC but just Theory.

Argument

A persuasive set of claims that consists of at least one premise that supports at least one conclusion.

• The relationship with an argument - that of support - is the most important relationship on the test.

Premise

A statement which supports another statement

Conclusion

A statement which is supported by another statement

Support

Increases the likelihood of truth

• If one claims support another claim, that means given that the first claim is true, the second claim is more likely to be true

True or False: Whether a claim is supported is a different question from whether a claim is true

True.

• Take your knowledge of the world out of it

Spectrum of Support

Strong Arguments

1. Must be true. Restatement. Valid Inference. No assumptions

2. Strong inference. Most likely to be true. Few reasonable assumptions made

Weak Arguments

1. Weak Inference. Somewhat likely to be true. Few reasonable assumptions made

2. Unsupported. Could be true or could be false. Many unreasonable assumptions are made.

Strong

The strength of the support relationship within an argument.

Assumptions

The missing link between the premise and the conclusion. The “forgotten premise”. A gap in reasoning.

• Assumptions can strengthen or weaken the argument and not all assumptions are equally reasonable

True or False: If the assumptions is made true than it strengthens the argument or makes the support stronger

In contrast, if the assumptions is made false then it weakens the argument or make the support weaker

True

True or False: The more reasonable an assumptions is, the less that assumptions renders (makes) the argument vulnerable to criticism

In contrast, The less reasonable an assumption is, the more that assumptions renders/makes the argument vulnerable to criticism.

True

Valid Argument

An argument where the truth of its premises guarantees the truth of its conclusion. It contains no assumptions.

Relationship

An Abstracted idea that exists only by reference to its two or (more) relata

Relationship Examples

1. Comparative Relationships: Accidents last year vs. accidents this year

2. Sufficiency Necessity: You can be in US without being in New York but must be in US if you are in New York

3. Some Intersections: Some people can be economics majors and pre law students

4. Casual Relationships: Cause and effect

5. Paragraph Vs Paragraph

6. Phenomenon vs Hypothesis

3 Methods to identify Premise and Conclusions

1. Just get to the point. Ask what’s the one thing the author wants me to believe? The answer will lead to the conclusion

2.Ask why should I believe this claim (conclusion)?

3. Find indicators that suggest premises and conclusions

Indicator Words USUALLY followed by a premise but also contain a conclusion

• For

• Since

• Because

Indicator Words USUALLY followed by a Premise

• Given that

• Seeing that

• For that reason that

• Owing to

• As indicated by

• After all

• On the grounds that

Indicator words USUALLY followed by a conclusion

• Consequently

• Therefore

• As a result

• So

• Clearly

• It follows that

• Accordingly

• We may conclude

• It entails

• Hence

• Thus

• We may infer that

• It must be that

• It implies that

• that is why

Complex Arguments

Contains more than one support relationship (A claim can be a Premise and a conclusion)

Major Premise/Sub-Conclusion

A claim which both gives and receives support

Context

Extra information related and important to, but not a part of the argument.

Important information to understand the argument but crucially is not apart of the argument.

Two Major Parts to Context

Table Setting: Introduces you to the topic

Other people Position: When the author tells you what other believe

The Three Context Indicators

1. “But, However, and Yet”: indicates a “turn” away from the contextual information and to the argument

2. “Some people say…”, “A group of biologist claim…”, “Most economist believe…”, “Numerous studies have shown…”: Indicates other people arguments and is often times set up to be followed by author disagreeing.

3. Concession: A kind of contextual information. They are claims that the author makes that don’t support his argument. If anything, they might hurt his argument.

Concession Indicators

• Despite

• In spite of

• Although

• Though

• Even though

• Even if

• Notwithstanding

• While

Concession

A kind of contextual information. They are claims that the author makes that don’t support his argument. If anything they might hurt his argument.

2 basic grammatical units

Nouns: Person, places, things, ideas, concepts, processes (I.e circulation, hypothesis, love, cat, Sam)

Verbs: words that indicate action, more or less (I.e to own, to pet, to have, to have, must be)

Clause

Noun + verb = clause (sentences can contain more than one but must have one clause)

Clause must contain a subject(noun) and predicate (verb)

Subject

Always contains a noun and is what the clause is about. (Can contain a verb)

Predicate

Must contain and usually starts with a verb and is the thing that we want to say about the subject (can contain a noun which is often times an object )

Many English sentences are (subject)(verb)(object) but object and verb can be put together to make predicate. (subject)(predicate)

Modifiers in the Subject

The modifier can cut down the noun into sub sets (ie cats vs fat cats (modifier)

Modifier in the Predicate

The modifier cuts down the verb into sub sets (ie cats sing lullabies vs cats sing French lullabies)

How to Strip Modifiers away to get the heart/core of the sentence

1. Ask what is the subject? What is the sentence about?

2. Ask about predicate. Where is the verb? What is the subject doing?

Modifier

Just provides more detail and information (ie adverbs, adjectives, prepositions)

Noun modifier

That and who

That and who can modify (break the noun into a subset)

Referentials

A stand-in for something stated elsewhere in the text (usually earlier)

Can be a word or phrase (pointing to something that is previously stated)

That and Which can be modifier and referential

Negative Referential

Points to something previously stated and says “not that”. I.e other/otherwise

3 components of comparatives

1. Two things will be compared

2. Compared on some quality or characteristic

3. There will be a winner

3 step process of identifying/solving comparatives

1. Identify A vs. B, what are the two things we are comparing

2. Indenting the quality or the characteristic that we are comparing A vs B

3. Identify the “winner” meaning is it A or B that come out on top in the comparison

Comparatives W/ Abstractions (unfamiliar ideas)

Translate abstract ideas into something tangible

Good Notes About Negative A&B Comparatives

A is not (quality of comparison) than B

• A could be equal to B or B is the winner

• When entering a comparative with “no” or “not”, the comparison may not have a clear winner. A and B can tie

I.e John is no taller than Jane (John could be the same height or shorter)

Implied comparatives

• comparatives that don’t use “than”

• When something is implied we have to draw inferences. Context helps draws strong/weak inferences

• A comparative can be implied. If it is implied make sure that the inference you draw (I.e your interpretation) is reasonable.

Comparatives: Relative vs. Absolute

• Most claims are relative: They compare two entities without making absolute statements

• Context matters. Context can sometimes imply absolute qualities. DOMNT CONFUSE COMPARATIVES W/ABSOLUTE CLAIMS.

Comparative Language is Versatile

1. Swap the position of A&B

2. “Swing” the comparative word in other direction (I.e I am older than you vs You are younger than me)

Comparatives can be rephrased without changing their meaning by reversing the comparative word and swapping positions of the subjects