Western civilization final

Johannes Gutenberg

Invented the printing press around 1450 and helped spread ideas across Europe.

Printing Press

Allowed ideas, books, and Reformation beliefs to spread quickly.

Martin Luther

Believed in salvation by faith alone, Bible as sole authority, and priesthood of all believers.

95 Theses

Criticized indulgences and Church corruption and helped start the Protestant Reformation.

Diet of Worms

Meeting where Luther refused to recant and was declared an outlaw.

John Calvin

Believed in predestination and theocracy.

Henry VIII

Broke from the Catholic Church after the Pope refused to annul his marriage.

Counter-Reformation

Catholic response to Protestantism that reformed the Church and fought heresy.

Jesuits

Religious order founded by Ignatius of Loyola to defend and spread Catholicism.

Council of Trent

Reaffirmed Catholic doctrine and reformed Church practices.

Index of Forbidden Books

List of banned books considered dangerous to Catholic beliefs.

Edict of Nantes

Granted religious toleration to French Protestants (Huguenots).

Treaty of Westphalia

Ended the Thirty Years' War and recognized state sovereignty.

Thirty Years' War

Religious and political conflict that devastated Germany.

Capitalism

Economic system based on private ownership and profit.

Mercantilism

Economic system focused on accumulating gold and silver through trade and colonies.

Elizabeth I

Created a religious compromise and improved England's finances.

Spanish Armada

Failed Spanish invasion of England in 1588.

Charles I

English king executed after conflict with Parliament.

Oliver Cromwell

Leader of Parliament's New Model Army.

James II

English king removed during the Glorious Revolution.

Glorious Revolution

Parliament replaced James II with William and Mary.

English Bill of Rights

Limited royal power and protected Parliament's rights.

Absolutism

Government where a monarch holds complete power.

Versailles

Palace that symbolized Louis XIV's power and control.

Louis XIV

French absolute monarch known as the Sun King.

Peter the Great

Modernized Russia and built St. Petersburg.

Scientific Revolution

Movement emphasizing observation, experimentation, and reason.

Heliocentric Theory

Idea that the Sun is the center of the solar system.

Copernicus

Proposed the heliocentric theory.

Kepler

Discovered that planets move in elliptical orbits.

Galileo

Supported heliocentrism through telescope observations.

Isaac Newton

Developed laws of motion and universal gravitation.

John Locke

Believed in natural rights and government by consent.

Thomas Hobbes

Believed a strong government was necessary to maintain order.

Voltaire

Supported freedom of speech and religious tolerance.

Montesquieu

Developed the idea of separation of powers.

Rousseau

Promoted the social contract and popular sovereignty.

Denis Diderot

Created the Encyclopedia.

Rene Descartes

"I think, therefore I am" and emphasized reason.

Adam Smith

Supported free-market capitalism and laissez-faire economics.

Mary Wollstonecraft

Advocated women's rights and education.

Salons

Gatherings where Enlightenment ideas were discussed.

Enlightenment

Movement promoting reason, liberty, equality, and natural rights.

French Revolution

Revolution inspired by Enlightenment ideals that spread democracy and nationalism.

National Assembly

Revolutionary body formed by the Third Estate.

Tennis Court Oath

Promise to create a new French constitution.

Declaration of the Rights of Man

Document guaranteeing rights and equality.

Bastille

Prison stormed by revolutionaries in 1789.

Women's March on Versailles

Forced the king to return to Paris.

Jacobins

Radical revolutionaries during the French Revolution.

Robespierre

Leader of the Reign of Terror.

Reign of Terror

Period of mass executions during the French Revolution.

Napoleon Bonaparte

Military leader who became Emperor of France.

Directory

Weak French government before Napoleon seized power.

Continental System

Napoleon's attempt to weaken Britain through trade restrictions.

Hundred Days

Napoleon's brief return to power before final defeat.

Napoleonic Code

Legal code establishing equality before the law.

Congress of Vienna

Meeting that restored balance of power after Napoleon.

Enclosure Movement

Consolidation of farmland into larger private farms.

Agricultural Revolution

Improvements in farming that increased food production.

Industrial Revolution

Period of rapid industrial growth beginning in Britain.

Urbanization

Growth of cities due to industrialization.

Socialism

Economic system favoring government ownership of major industries.

Communism

Economic system advocating a classless society with shared property.

Karl Marx

Co-author of The Communist Manifesto.

Friedrich Engels

Co-author of The Communist Manifesto.

Imperialism

Expansion of a nation's power through colonies.

Social Darwinism

Application of survival-of-the-fittest ideas to society and imperialism.

Nationalism

Strong pride and loyalty toward one's nation.

Realpolitik

Politics based on practical goals rather than ideals.

Otto von Bismarck

Unified Germany through wars and diplomacy.

Blood and Iron

Bismarck's policy of using force to unify Germany.

Mazzini

Italian nationalist who inspired unification.

Cavour

Italian leader who used diplomacy to unify Italy.

Garibaldi

Military leader who helped unify Italy.

Victor Emmanuel II

First king of unified Italy.

Militarism

Building up armed forces and preparing for war.

Alliance System

Agreements between nations to support one another.

Archduke Franz Ferdinand

Assassination triggered World War I.

Triple Entente

Britain, France, and Russia.

Triple Alliance

Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.

Schlieffen Plan

Germany's plan to quickly defeat France before Russia.

Battle of Verdun

Longest battle of WWI.

Battle of the Somme

WWI battle with enormous casualties.

Gallipoli

Failed Allied campaign against the Ottoman Empire.

Unrestricted Submarine Warfare

German policy of sinking ships without warning.

Zimmermann Telegram

German message encouraging Mexico to attack the United States.

Russian Revolution

Revolution that led to the creation of the Soviet Union.

February Revolution

Forced Tsar Nicholas II to abdicate.

Provisional Government

Temporary government led by Kerensky.

October Revolution

Bolshevik takeover led by Lenin.

Lenin

Leader of the Bolsheviks.

Trotsky

Bolshevik revolutionary and military leader.

Bolsheviks

Revolutionary group led by Lenin.

Mensheviks

Socialist group favoring gradual change.

USSR

Soviet Union created after the Russian Revolution.

Joseph Stalin

Dictator of the Soviet Union.

Wilson's Fourteen Points

Plan for lasting peace after WWI.

Treaty of Versailles

Peace treaty that punished Germany after WWI.