ENGR 297 FINAL (Second Midterm)

What is consequentialism?

An action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable. (Ethical Egoism, Ethical Altruism, Utilitarianism)

What is utilitarianism?

An action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable to EVERYONE. (the needs of the many outweigh the needs of the few)

Bentham VS Mill

Bentham’s utilitarianism:

Act-utilitarianism is when we consider the consequences of each act that we perform.

Hedonistic utilitarianism is when pleasure and pain are the only morally relevant consequences.

Mill’s utilitarianism:
Rule-utilitarianism is when a behavioural code or rule is morally right if the consequences of adopting that rule are more favorable than unfavorable to everyone.

Ethical Egoism VS Ethical Altruism?

Ethical egoism is when an action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable only to the agent preforming the action.

Ethical altruism is when an action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable to everyone except the agent.

What are Deontological Theories?

Theories that consider our duties (not the consequences of some act or rule).

They are based on some kind of principle of obligation.

Example, it is wrong to neglect your children even if it results in some great benefit, such as financial savings.

what are Rights Theories?

A right is a justified claim against another person’s behavior.
Example, I have a right to not be harmed by you.

Four features of moral rights

Natural (not created by governments)

Universal (do not change from country to country)

Equal (apply to all people irrespective of race, gender or handicap)

Inalienable (cannot be handed over to another person)

What are Categorical Imperatives?

“A single, self-evident principle of reason” that applies regardless of desires.

Second formulation of categorical imperative

Treat people as an end and never as a means to an end.

That is, never use people as an instrument for your own happiness.

Respect their dignity and inherent value as a human being.

Social Contract Theories

Hobbes’ state of nature is a condition where life is insecure, leading people to create authority ot ensure safety.

Locke’s state of nature is a state of perfect and complete liberty, but governed by the law of nature.

What is the law of Nature (Locke)?

It commands that we don’t harm others in their “life, health, liberty, or possessions.”

Why do people form government (Locke)?

To gain, laws, judges, and enforcement.

What is the Original Position (Rawls)?

A hypothetical situation used to determine fair principles of justice.

People have the capacity to reason from a universal point of view.

What is the Veil of Ignorance?

This means that we are unaware of any of our own circumstances. That is, whether we are poor or rich, male or female, old or young, or what our social status or culture is.

From this position we should choose the principles for a just society.

What are Rawl’s principles?

Principle of Justice is when each person has “as much basic liberty as possible” equally distributed.

Difference Principle is when inequalities are only justified if they benefit the least advantaged.

What is virtue theory?

Morality focuses on “developing good habits of character” rather than following rules.

Virtues are things like “good habits of character” such as benevolence.

Vices are “bad character traits” such as cowardice and injustice.

What is Aristotle’s view of virtue?

Virtues are “good habits that we acquire, which regulate our emotions.”

The mean is when virtues lie between “more extreme character traits”.

What is the Prisoner’s Dilemma?

A situation where rational self-interest leads both individuals to worse outcomes than if they had trusted each other.

The key lesson of the Prisoner’s Dilemma is that “one does better if one acts cooperatively.”

Diversity in the Workplace

Women face “frustrations, discrimination” and must overcome gender as the “first hurdle.”

Diversity is necessary because “Technology is consumed by all genders and must be created by a demographic that is representative of their audience.”

Business case for diversity is that “Diversity brings varied perspectives… enables them to solve problems and adapt quicker.”

What is an anthropocentric theory?

A theory where moral obligations are centered toward humans.

Why consider future generations in ethics?

Our actions affect their lives and access to basic needs like water and food.

What is Peter Singer’s view on animals?

Animals that feel pleasure and pain deserve moral consideration.

What is Tom Regan’s view on animals?

Animals with beliefs and desires have inherent value and rights.

What is the “last human scenario”?

Questions if destroying nature is wrong when no humans are harmed.

What does Paul Taylor argue about living organisms?

All living things have inherent value as “centers of life.”

What is a holistic environmental approach?

Focus on ecosystems and the “biotic community” as a whole.

What is the tragedy of the commons?

Individuals acting in self-interest deplete shared resources.

What is rational for individuals can harm society as a whole.

What are types of pollution?

Water, air, and ground pollution.

Why are forests important?

Biodiversity, food, erosion prevention, and carbon absorption.

What causes climate change?

Greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide.

Three approaches to climate change?

Minimization, counteracting, adaptation.

What is sustainable development?

Meeting present needs without harming future generations.

Why is population growth an issue?

Resources are finite and unevenly distributed.

What is a key issue in food security?

Food exists but is not distributed properly.

What is a major energy inequality?

A small portion of the population uses most energy.

Examples of global commons?

Oceans, space, Antarctica.

Goal of sustainable industry?

Produce more with fewer resources.

How does conflict affect sustainability?

It consumes resources and worsens environmental problems.

What is a carbon tax?

A set price per unit of pollution to reduce emissions.

Advantage of carbon tax?

Encourages innovation and cleaner energy.

What is cap and trade?

A system that limits total emissions and allows trading permits.

What are the elements of negligence?

Duty of care, breach, loss, causation.

What determines duty of care?

Reasonable foreseeability and relationships.

What is a contract, and what it’s key elements?

An enforceable voluntary agreement.

Offer, acceptance, consideration, capacity, intention, lawful purpose.

What are gratuities?

Payments or gifts given “for services rendered,” but in business ethics they may be problematic if they influence decision-making or create unfair advantage.

What is contract underbidding?

Submitting a bid that is unrealistically low with the expectation that costs will increase later.

This misleads clients and undermines fair competition.

What is bid rigging?

Collusion between firms to manipulate the bidding process.

This means companies agree in advance who will win, which violates fairness and competition.

What are kickbacks?

Secret payments made to someone in return for favorable treatment or decisions.

This is clearly unethical and often illegal.

What is resume padding?

Exaggerating or falsifying qualifications, experience, or achievements.

This is deceptive and undermines trust.

What is whistleblowing?

Reporting unethical or illegal actions within an organization.

This can protect the public, but often involves personal risk.

What is shareholder theory?

The view that the primary responsibility of business is to maximize profit for shareholders.

What is stakeholder theory?

The view that businesses have obligations to all stakeholders, including employees, customers, suppliers, and society.

What is the invisible hand argument?

The idea that individuals pursuing their own self-interest unintentionally promote the overall good of society.

Criticism of the invisible hand

Self-interest does not always lead to morally good or fair outcomes.

What is business amoralism?

The belief that business decisions are separate from morality.

This means businesses have no moral obligations.

Problem with business amoralism

Business actions still affect people and involve moral consequences.

What is ethical subjectivism?

The view that moral judgments are based on personal beliefs or opinions.

Problem with ethical subjectivism

If morality is only personal opinion, it becomes difficult to resolve ethical disagreements.