Unit 3

Chronological development

The study of how people change based on age and time, from birth to death. Example: Comparing how a 5-year-old thinks vs a 15-year-old.

Lifespan development

Studies how people grow and change across their entire life, not just childhood. Example: Learning continues in adulthood, not just school years.

Stability and change

The idea of what stays the same in a person vs what changes over time. Example: A shy child may stay shy or become more outgoing later.

Nature and nurture

Nature = genetics (what you are born with), nurture = environment (what you experience). Example: Intelligence may come from genes and education.

Continuous development

Development happens gradually over time. Example: Getting taller little by little each year.

Discontinuous development

Development happens in stages with sudden changes. Example: Moving from not speaking to suddenly forming sentences.

Teratogens

Anything that can harm a developing fetus during pregnancy (drugs, alcohol, viruses). Example: Alcohol during pregnancy affecting brain development.

Fine motor coordination

Small muscle movements like writing or picking up small objects. Example: Writing with a pencil.

Gross motor coordination

Large body movements like walking or jumping. Example: Riding a bike.

Maturation

Biology-driven physical development that happens naturally over time. Example: A baby learning to walk without training.

Reflexes

Automatic, unlearned responses. Example: A baby grasping a finger placed in their hand.

Rooting reflex

A baby turns its head toward a touch on the cheek to find food. Example: Turning toward a bottle.

Visual cliff

A test showing depth perception in babies. Example: Babies refusing to crawl over a glass “drop.”

Critical periods

Specific times when certain development must happen for normal growth. Example: Learning language early in life.

Sensitive periods

Time periods when learning is easiest but not strictly required. Example: Learning a second language more easily in childhood.

Imprinting

When animals form strong early attachments. Example: Ducklings following the first moving object they see.

Growth spurt

A rapid increase in height and weight during adolescence. Example: Suddenly growing several inches in a year.

Puberty

Biological changes that make the body capable of reproduction. Example: Voice deepening in boys.

Primary sex characteristics

Reproductive organs directly involved in reproduction. Example: Ovaries and testes.

Secondary sex characteristics

Physical traits that develop during puberty but are not directly involved in reproduction. Example: Facial hair.

Menarche

First menstrual period in girls. Example: Starting menstruation during puberty.

Spermarche

First ejaculation in boys. Example: First production of sperm during puberty.

Menopause

End of menstrual cycles in women, usually in middle adulthood. Example: No longer ovulating.

Schemas

Mental frameworks that organize knowledge. Example: “Dog schema” includes barking, fur, and four legs.

Assimilation

Using existing schemas to understand new information. Example: Calling a whale a fish.

Accommodation

Changing schemas when new information doesn’t fit. Example: Learning whales are mammals.

Sensorimotor stage

Piaget stage where babies learn through senses and actions. Example: Shaking a rattle to learn sound.

Object permanence

Understanding that objects exist even when not seen. Example: A baby looking for a hidden toy.

Preoperational stage

Piaget stage where children use language but think illogically. Example: Believing a toy is alive.

Mental symbols

Using objects or words to represent things. Example: A stick representing a sword.

Pretend play

Using imagination to act out roles. Example: Pretending a box is a car.

Conservation

Understanding that quantity stays the same even if shape changes. Example: Same water in different shaped cups.

Reversibility

Understanding actions can be reversed. Example: Realizing you can undo pouring water back.

Animism

Believing inanimate objects have life. Example: Thinking the sun is “following you.”

Egocentrism

Seeing the world only from your own perspective. Example: Thinking others see what you see.

Theory of mind

Understanding that others have thoughts and feelings different from yours. Example: Realizing someone else can have different beliefs.

Concrete operational stage

Piaget stage where children think logically about real objects. Example: Solving simple math problems.

Systematic thinking

Thinking logically and step-by-step. Example: Solving problems in order.

Formal operational stage

Piaget stage where abstract and hypothetical thinking develops. Example: Thinking about future possibilities.

Abstract thinking

Thinking about ideas not tied to real objects. Example: Justice or freedom.

Hypothetical thinking

Thinking about “what if” situations. Example: What if humans could fly?

Scaffolding (Vygotsky)

Support from others that helps a learner complete tasks they cannot do alone. Example: A teacher guiding a student step by step.

Zone of proximal development

The gap between what a learner can do alone and with help. Example: Solving problems with teacher help but not alone.

Crystallized intelligence

Knowledge gained from experience and learning. Example: Vocabulary and facts.

Fluid intelligence

Ability to solve new problems without prior knowledge. Example: Solving a puzzle you’ve never seen before.

Dementia

Severe decline in memory and thinking ability, usually in older age. Example: Forgetting familiar people or places.

Phonemes

Basic sound units of language. Example: “b” and “p” sounds.

Morphemes

Smallest units of meaning in language. Example: “un-” means not.

Semantics

Meaning of words and sentences. Example: Understanding what a sentence means.

Grammar

Rules of language structure. Example: Correct sentence formation.

Syntax

Rules for word order in sentences. Example: “I eat food” vs incorrect order.

Cooing

Infant making vowel-like sounds. Example: “ooo” or “aah.”

Babbling

Repeating consonant-vowel sounds. Example: “ba-ba-ba.”

One-word stage

Using single words to express ideas. Example: “milk” to mean “I want milk.”

Telegraphic speech

Two- or three-word sentences. Example: “want toy.”

Overgeneralization of language rules

Applying grammar rules too broadly. Example: “goed” instead of “went.”

Ecological systems theory

Explains development as influenced by different environmental systems around a person.

Microsystem

Immediate environment like family and school. Example: Parents and teachers.

Mesosystem

Connections between microsystems. Example: Parent-teacher relationships.

Exosystem

Indirect environments affecting a person. Example: A parent’s workplace.

Macrosystem

Larger cultural values and society. Example: Cultural beliefs about education.

Chronosystem

Time-related changes affecting development. Example: Divorce or moving countries.

Authoritarian parenting

Strict parenting with high rules and low warmth. Example: “Because I said so.”

Authoritative parenting

High rules but also supportive and warm. Example: Explaining rules and listening.

Permissive parenting

Very few rules and high freedom. Example: Letting children do whatever they want.

Attachment styles

Emotional bonds between children and caregivers.

Secure attachment

Child feels safe and supported. Example: Comforted when parent returns.

Insecure attachment

Child feels uncertain or anxious about caregiver.

Avoidant attachment

Child avoids caregiver. Example: Not seeking comfort when upset.

Anxious attachment

Child is clingy and worried about abandonment.

Disorganized attachment

Inconsistent behavior due to fear or confusion.

Temperament

Inborn personality style. Example: Calm vs easily upset baby.

Separation anxiety

Distress when separated from caregiver. Example: Crying when parent leaves.

Parallel play

Children play near each other but not together. Example: Two kids playing side by side.

Pretend play

Using imagination in play. Example: Pretending to be a doctor.

Imaginary audience

Belief that everyone is watching you (common in teens). Example: Feeling judged in class.

Personal fable

Belief that your experiences are unique. Example: “No one understands me.”

Social clock

Society’s expectations about when life events should happen. Example: “You should graduate by this age.”

Emerging adulthood

Stage between teens and adulthood focused on identity exploration. Example: Ages 18–25 exploring careers.

Erikson psychosocial stages

Theory of personality development across life.

Trust vs mistrust

Infants learn whether the world is safe.

Autonomy vs shame and doubt

Toddlers develop independence.

Initiative vs guilt

Children start taking initiative.

Industry vs inferiority

Children develop competence in skills.

Identity vs role confusion

Teens explore identity.

Intimacy vs isolation

Young adults form relationships.

Generativity vs stagnation

Adults contribute to society.

Integrity vs despair

Older adults reflect on life.

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)

Traumatic childhood events affecting development. Example: Abuse or neglect.

Achievement (adolescent development)

Success in school and skill development.

Diffusion (identity)

No clear identity or direction.

Foreclosure

Identity formed without exploration (based on others’ expectations).

Moratorium

Active exploration without commitment yet.

Racial/ethnic identity

Understanding one’s cultural background.

Sexual orientation

Who someone is emotionally/romantically attracted to.

Religious identity

Beliefs and connection to religion.

Occupational identity

Career-related sense of self.

Familial identity

Role within family (daughter, sibling, etc.).

Possible selves

Who you imagine you might become in the future.

Behavioral perspective

Focuses on learning through interaction with environment and observable behavior.