Social Psych. Week 1

Obedience vs. authority figure

Obedience means following orders. An authority figure is someone seen as having power, expertise, or control. In Milgram, the lab-coat experimenter was the authority figure, and participants obeyed his instructions.

Fundamental attribution error vs. disposition

The fundamental attribution error is blaming behaviour too much on internal traits and not enough on the situation. A disposition is an internal factor like personality, values, beliefs, traits, or ability. Example: “They cut me off because they’re rude,” instead of considering the situation.

Nudges vs construal

Nudges are small situational details that strongly shape behaviour. Ex: automatic retirement enrolment increases saving because people must opt out.

Construal is how someone interprets a situation

Behavioural Economics vs. Gestalt psychology

Behavioural economics studies how psychology and small situational factors affect real life decision making.

Gestalt psychology says people perceive whole patterns, not just separate pieces. Together, they show that people do not passively record reality; they actively interpret it.

Schema vs stereotype vs self-schema

A schema is an organised knowledge structure that helps us know what to expect.

A stereotype is a schema about a group of people.

A self-schema is a schema about yourself. It includes traits, roles, and identities you use to understand yourself, like “i’m outgoing,” “I’m a runner,” “I’m a big sister”…

Automatic vs controlled processing

Automatic processing is quick, unconscious, involuntary, and often emotional.

Controlled processing is conscious, deliberate, slower, and effortful.

Controlled thinking can override automatic reactions.

Implicit vs explicit attitudes/beliefs

Implicit attitudes are automatic and may not be consciously recognised or controlled.

Explicit attitudes are conscious, stated, and deliberate. Someone can explicitly reject prejudice but still show implicit bias.

Unconscious processing

Happens outside awareness. Ex. subconsciously copying someone’s posture or gestures in a conversation. it is useful because it is fast and can happen in parallel with other mental processes.

Evolutionary theory vs natural selection

Evolutionary theory explains some behaviours shaped by survival and reproduction pressures.

Natural Selection is the process where traits that help survival/reproduction are more likely to be passed on.

Universals + group living

Universals are traits or behaviours found across cultures, though they may look different. Examples include marriage, language, music, medicine, and baby talk.

Group living is adaptive because it helps with protection, cooperation, resources and survival

Language acquisition + theory of mind

Language acquisition is the ability to learn language; humans may be biologically prepared for it, but culture shapes the specific language learned.

Theory of mind is understanding that others have their own thoughts, beliefs, and desires.

Naturalistic fallacy

The naturalistic fallacy is assuming that because something is “natural,” it is automatically good, right, or acceptable. This is important because evolutionary explanations should not be used to justify inequality or harmful behaviour.

Social neuroscience + fMRI + social brain

Social neuroscience studies how brain activity relates to social behaviour. fMRI shows which brain areas are active during tasks. The social brain refers to brain systems involved in social behaviour. emotion, danger detection, and social thinking.

Culture

Culture is the shared beliefs, values, practices, norms, and ways of life of a group. It shapes how people interpret the world, define themselves, form relationships, understand gender roles, and behave.

Independent vs. Interdependent cultures

Independent/individualistic cultures emphasize personal choice, freedom, uniqueness, and individual traits. interdependent/collectivist cultures emphasize relationships, group membership, harmony, duty, and connection.

Independent vs. interdependent self-construal

Independent self-construal means seeing yourself as separate and defined by personal traits. Interdependent self-construal means seeing yourself as connected to others and defined through relationships and group roles.

Kin associations vs. economic cooperation

Kin associations organize culture around family, clans, tribes, or inherited ties. Economic cooperation means survival/income depends heavily on working with others. Both tend to encourage interdependence.

Gender roles

Gender roles are cultural expectations about how people of different genders should behave. They vary across cultures and within subcultures, showing that gender expectations are shaped by social context.

WEIRD samples vs. generalizability

WEIRD samples come from Western, Educated, Industrialised, Rich, Democratic societies. This can limit generalizability, meaning how well findings apply to other people, cultures, places, and times.

Social media + the good life

Social psychologists study how social media affects identity, comparison, attitudes, happiness, behaviour, and communication. They also study the good life, meaning what makes people happy, reduces stress and improves well-being.

Hindsight bias vs. confirmation bias

Hindsight bias is thinking “I knew it all along” after learning and outcome. Confirmation bias is looking for or interpreting information in ways that support what you already believe.

Hindsight = looking back; confirmation = filtering evidence.

Theory vs. hypothesis, vs. thought experiment

A theory is a broad evidence-based explanation. A hypothesis is a specific, testable, prediction. A thought experiment asks how you would test an idea if you could, even if a real experiment is not possible.

observational vs. archival vs. survey research

Observational research watches behaviour directly. Archival research uses existing records like newspapers or police reports. Survey research asks participants questions through interviews/questionnaires. All can be useful but have limits.

Population vs. Sample

A population is the whole group the researcher wants to understand. A sample is the smaller group actually studied.

Ex. all UTSC students = population; 200 surveyed UTSC students = sample

Random sampling vs. convenience sampling

Random sampling gives everyone in the population an equal chance of being selected, reducing bias. Convenience sampling uses people who are easy to access, which can create biased results.

Correlational research + correlation

Correlational research examines whether two or more variables are related. A correlation is the degree of association between variables.

Positive vs. negative vs. zero correlation + Pearson’s r

Positive correlation: both variables increase together.

Negative correlation: One increases while the other decreases.

Zero correlation: no relationship

Pearson’s r ranges from -1 to +1 and shows strength/direction

Why can’t correlation prove causation?

Correlation cannot prove causation because of reverse causation, third variables, and self-selection. A relationship between two variables does not prove which caused which, or whether another factor caused both.

Reverse causation vs. third variable, vs. self-selection

Reverse causation: the direction may be opposite of what you think. Third variable: another factor causes both variables.

Self-selection: People choose their own level of a variable, making causal claims harder.

Experimental research + random assignment

Experimental research manipulates a variable and randomly assigns participants to conditions. Random assignment means everyone has an equal chance of being in each condition, helping researchers make causal claims.

Independent variable vs. dependent variable

The independent variable is manipulated and is the hypothesised cause. The dependent variable is measured and is the hypothesized outcome.

Experimental condition vs. control condition vs. natural experiment

The experimental condition gets the key manipulation and acts as comparison. The control condition lacks the key manipulation and acts as comparison. A natural experiment studies a naturally occurring event/condition that creates comparison groups.

External validity vs. field experiment

External validity is how well findings apply outside the study. A field experiment happens in the real world, often with participants unaware, and usually has higher external validity.

Internal validity vs. external validity trade-off

Internal validity means the IV likely caused the results because the study was well controlled. External validity means findings apply to real life. More control often means less realism; more realism often means less control.

Reliability vs. measurement validity

Reliability means a measure gives consistent results. Measurement validity means it actually measures what it is supposed to measure.

A measure can be reliable but not valid.

Regression to the mean vs. normal distribution

Regression to the mean means extreme scores tend to be followed by less extreme scores. A normal distribution/bell curve means most scores cluster around the average with fewer scores at the extremes.

Statistical significance vs. replication

Statistical significance means a result is unlikely to have occurred by chance. Replication means repeating a study to see if the same results occur again, which strengthens confidence in the finding.

Open science + IRB/REB + Informed consent + deception research

Open science improves transparency. IRB/REB reviews research ethics. Informed consent means participants agree after learning key information. Deception research misleads participants about the study and requires ethical review/debriefing.