dev psych exam new cards

schemes

organized groups of similar actions or thoughts that are used repeatedly in response to the environment

assimilation

already exists

responding to or thinking about an object or event in a way that is consistent with an existing scheme

accommodation

make new or change

modifying an existing scheme or forming a new one when a new object or event cannot be handled by existing schemes

equilibration

movement from equilibrium to disequilibrium and back to equilibrium, a process that promotes more complex levels of thought

object permanence

realization that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight, developed in sensorimotor stage

egocentrism

the inability of a child in the preoperational stage to view a situation from another person's perspective

conservation

the recognition that if nothing is added or taken away, amount stays the same regardless of alterations in shape or arrangement

reversibility

the ability to mentally undo an action, a characteristic of the concrete operational stage

individual constructivism

Piaget’s notion that children actively create their own knowledge through personal experiences rather than passively absorbing information

cognitive tools

symbols, concepts, and strategies (like language or math) that a culture provides to help its members think and solve problems more effectively

internalization

the process through which social activities evolve into internal mental activities

zone of proximal development (ZPD)

the range of tasks that a child cannot yet perform independently but can perform with the help and guidance of others

scaffolding

support mechanisms (like hints or breaking down steps) provided by a teacher or more competent peer to help a child successfully perform a task within their ZPD

inner speech

the process of talking to oneself mentally rather than aloud, used to guide behavior and thought

appropriation

internalizing but also adapting cognitive tools from one's culture for one's own use

microsystem

immediate environment where the individual lives and has direct interactions (e.g., family, school)

mesosystem

the connections or relationships between different microsystems (e.g., the link between a child's home and their school)

exosystem

social settings that do not contain the individual but still affect their experience (e.g., a parent's workplace)

macrosystem

the broader cultural context, including values, laws, and customs of a society

chronosystem

the patterning of environmental events and transitions over the life course, including historical circumstances

phonology (phonemes)

study of phonemes, which are the basic units of sound in a language

morphology (morphemes)

the study of morphemes, the smallest units of meaning in a language (e.g., prefixes, suffixes)

semantics

meanings of words and word combinations

pragmatics

social rules governing how to use language effectively in different contexts

holophrases

single-word utterances used by infants to express a whole thought (e.g., "Milk!" meaning "I want milk")

telegraphic speech

short, two- or three-word sentences that contain only critical content words (e.g., "Baby go")

fast mapping

process by which children quickly map a new word onto an underlying concept after only one or two exposures

overextension

applying a word to a wider range of objects than is appropriate

underextension

error where the meaning of a word is overly specific, applying it to a specific object rather than all in the category

encoding

changing information into a form that can be stored in memory

dual-store model

model of memory claiming there are three separate storage components: the sensory register, working (short-term) memory, and long-term memory

working memory

component of memory where information is temporarily held and actively processed

declarative knowledge

knowledge related to what is, including facts and symbols

procedural knowledge

knowledge of “how to” do things or perform tasks

automaticity

the ability to respond quickly and efficiently while performing tasks, requiring little mental effort

id

present at birth, operates on the pleasure principle, and houses basic instincts

ego

rational part of personality that operates on the reality principle and mediates between the id and the superego

superego

component of personality representing the conscience and internalized moral standards of society

defense mechanisms

mental strategies (like repression or denial) used by the ego to protect itself from anxiety

Erikson’s Psychosocial Crises

central conflicts (e.g., Trust vs. Mistrust) that individuals must resolve at each stage of development to achieve a healthy personality

fixation

In Freud's theory, the result of being "stuck" in a psychosexual stage because a conflict was not properly resolved

sensorimotor stage

first stage, typically involving infants, where children learn about the world through their senses and motor skills; a key milestone is developing object permanence

preoperational stage

second stage where children begin to use language and symbols but are characterized by egocentrism, or the inability to see a situation from another person's point of view

concrete operational stage

third stage where children begin to think logically about physical objects and develop an understanding of conservation and reversibility

formal operational stage

final stage, often reached by adolescents, where individuals develop the capacity for abstract thought, hypothetical reasoning, and systematic problem-solving