Anthro Bio Final Exam

Unleavened bread

• Flour, water, salt 

• Sometimes cooked in oil/fat 

• Worldwide examples 

  • Europe: bannock 

  • africa L chapati, saj 

  • Asia: roti, dosa 

  • americas : frybread, arepa 

Chemical leavened bread

• Baking soda or baking powder plus an acid (buttermilk, cream of tartar, citrus)  

• Soda bread, pancakes, biscuits, cornbread, fruit breads

• “Quick bread”

Yeast leavened bread

• Takes the sugars in the food, consumes, turns into ethanol and carbon dioxide 

• Co2 makes the bubbles in the bread which makes it rise 

• Gluten = gliadins & glutenins

  • Storage proteins found in some grains 

  • When combined with water proteins form mesh structure of gluten 

  • Co2 gets stuck in gluten net and expand 

• We knead to help proteins form long gluten strands to best trap co2 bubbles and rise

• When you bake it it kills the yeast and the alc evaporates so your left with baked bread with air pockets

Natural yeast/fermentation

• Yeast or bacteria in the air or from a starter that you then use in the next batch (sourdough) 

• Maillard reaction 

  • Chem reaction that occurs during browning of meat bread etc 

  • Reaction of sugars and amino acids, complex flavors 

    • Like caramelization but more complex 

  • Really yummy and delish and very liked by people 

  • Varies based on types of sugar, types of amino acids, temperature and time 

Beer components

• Malt, barley or another grain 

  • Malted = germinated by soaking in water 

  • Makes starches more accessible ]then dried to stop germination 

• Hops 

  • Flowers of hop plant 

  • Bitter citrusy flavor to beer 

  • Preservative, helps make foam 

• Yeast 

  • Needed for fermentation 

  • Different yeasts better for different types of beer 

• Water

German beer purity law of 1516

• says beer can only have barley hops and water, maybe yeast was natural then from air or in containers 

Evidence we made beer way back when

• Argument that starch grains look like theyve been damaged the same way to starch grains weve fermented now which says we maybe made beer way back in natufian 

• How did people figure this out 

  • Sumerian beer recipe 

    • Malted wheat berries 

    • Soak with water, yeast, date syrup, parbaked fermented barley dough 

    • Cloudly, porridge like 2% alcohol 

    • At least two forms of yeast, more carbs to allow for the consuming 

  • Egyptians had veer 3500 years ago evidence proof 

Why did they make beer

• High in carbs, we can metabolize the ethanol for energy 

• This helps to preserve some of the grain ur grabbing all the time 

• Store some of those calories in longer term form 

Wine components

• Alcohol produced in wine same was as in beer but instead of the grain and hops ur just using the fruit and the sugars in the fruit that combine with yeast to make ethanol and carbon dioxide 

Vinegar made

• (acetic acid) 

  • Take alc and oxygen and bacteria to make vinegar 

  • Preserving pickling cooking 

Metabolism of ethanol

1. Absorbed into bloodstream,, reaches all tissues 

2. In liver 2 enzyme reactions 

   1. ADH converts to acetaldehyde 

      1. Relatively toxic, causes hangovers carcinogenic 

   2. ALDH converts that to acetic acid (which is fire) 

• Recommendation is to spread consumption overtime so backup doesn't happen causing acetaldehyde

ALDH mutation

• Many humans have ALDH mutation > codes for  nonfunctional ALDH enzyme so extra high acetaldehyde (20x as much)

  • Facial flushing, headache, nausea 

  • Can be dangerous because acetylhype is carcinogenic 

  • More common in people with Asian heritage 

Drunken monkey hypothesis

• we are interested in alc because we used to be primarily fruit eaters and alcohol makes us feel good so we prefer fruits that have higher alcohol because we have the bias to favor more alcoholic fruits 

  • Evidence that change in enzyme second way back in hominoids lineage 

• Chimps eating eq of 1.5 servings of alc a day in human terms potensh 

Health benefits of tea and coffee

Tea: Potential health benefits 

• Caffeine 

• Polyphenols, act as antioxidants which scavenge free radicals 

  • Flavonols 

  • Theaflavuns 

  • Catechins 

• Drinking multiple cups a day is fire for you

Coffee: Lots of health benefits 

• Caffeine

• Diterpenes, melanoids = antiinflammatory 

• Chlorogenic acid 

• Unfiltered coffee is high in diterpenes that raise LDL

Consistencies of OG diets

Lots of founder crops, lots of carbs but different carbs, everyone has carbs, protein, fat in their diet, and reliable source of starch, tend to be fresher and less processed

NONE associated with metabolic dieseases

Probs with the standard American diet (SAD)

• processed > fiber removed

• Micronutrients per bread is less

• Lots of sodium added

• High cal, high energy density, low fiber

• Lots of red meat

High energy density

Lots of energy (cals) in small volume > you tend to eat more bc lacking fiber to trigger satiety

WWs development of diet

Shift from agriculture to industry bc men farming were enlisted, so less food and food available went to enlisted first > processed foods rationed, nutrients advice via scientific approach begins

Lipid hypothesis (keys)

Saturated fat intake » higher blood cholesterol » heart disease

Snackwells phenomenon

Fat free snacks on the rise in 80s, idea that as long as you arent eating fat ur fine leading to overconsumption of fat free foods

Trans fats through to be healthier than saturated fats at this time (NOT TRUE) > learn they increase LDL in late 90s

Life expectancy vs lifespan

Average predicted remaining years of life left from a particular age (for population/sex)

Lifespan: how long you actually live

Can be changed as you life based on infant/child mortality, violence and accidents, mortality in childbirth, survivor effect (the longer u live the longer you live)

Early 100s interest in longevity

2004: Michel Poulain and

Giovanni Pes publish longevity

data from Sardinia showing

concentration of centenarians

• 2005: Dan Buettner publishes “The

Secrets of Long Life” in National

Geographic focused on Sardinia,

Okinawa, and Loma Linda

Okinawa

Lots of vegetables

• High omega 3 fatty acids

• 1/3 the meat of typical American

• Exercise

• Social connections, purpose

• Lower rates of heart disease,

cancer vs. US

Sardinia

Whole-grain bread (carta da musica),

Mediterranean diet

• Meat and cheese

• Local wine has 2-3X flavonoids as other

wines (heart)

Seventh Day Adventist

Vegetarian, soy, nuts, legumes

• Religious and social bonds

• No alcohol

Ikaria

Mediterranean diet, socializing

Peer reviewed studies support

• social bonds, Mediterranean, exercise

Cal restriction x life span across animals

Many organisms (like mice) when cals restricted live longer

With monkeys, their onset of dies ease starts later BUT no difference in lifespan overall

CR in humans

Found less thyroid activity

Reduction in reactive oxygen species

So metabolic slowing AND reduced oxidative stress > supports rate of living hypothesis

Rate of living hypothesis

states that a faster metabolic rate leads to a shorter lifespan, suggesting organisms have a fixed amount of metabolic energy to spend. In nutrition, this implies that higher caloric intake and increased metabolic activity accelerate aging, while reducing energy intake slows this process

Future prediction of lifespan

Over time life expectancy has been increasing (but life span has not) > if trend continues then it will

BUT might decrease due to pollution, increase in obesity, and widening health gap based on SES (lower SES = lower life expectancy)

Goal of scientists is to increase disease free years (which is not keeping pace with overall trend)

Insulin

Hormone made by beta cells in pancreas, let’s glucose enter cells (where it can be made into ATP) > without it get hyperglycemia

Typically rises as blood glucose rises (when eating, triggered by hypothalamus for pancreas to release) > brings blood sugar down bc glucose moves into cells

Insulin resistance

Fewer functioning insulin receptors so insulin and glucose remain stuck in the blood

Glycemic index

Tendency of dif foods to raise blood sugar

Lower GI foods = require less insulin to metabolize (eg. Non starchy veggies/fruit)

High GI foods = requires more insulin to metabolize (eg. Things with lots of sugar, starchy veggies)

Glycemic load

(Glycemic index x amount of carb) / 100

Metabolic syndrome

Set of risk factors for heart problems, stroke, type 2 diabetes

3 or more of following:

• high blood pressure

• Fasting blood sugar

• Waist circumference

• HDL cholesterol

Probs with visceral and intramuscular fat

Increase insulin resistance bc makes cytokines that reduce sensitivity and increase inflammation

Type 2 diabetes

Prolonged insulin resistance exhausts beta cells > can be treated with diet, exercise, insulin, insulin sensitizers, GLP 1 agonists

Child obesity

On the rise hella, earlier onset could mean greater health effects and is linked to type 2 diabetes

Hypotheses of why:

• portion sizes are larger, more calorie intake

• Dif types of cals (more of low GI) could effect hormones

• HFC is metabolized dif and lowers satiety, could cause more eating

• Food access + cost hypothesis

Food access + cost hypothesis

Reliance on fast food and convenience stores for many families bc far from grocery stores (primarily a problem in rural areas with low SES, correlated with higher rates of obesity and diabetes)

Lots of kids rely on school lunch/breakfast > increasingly more processed

What makes us start/stop eating

Starts:

Physical hunger signals - empty stomach

Hedonic inputs - smell, sight, mention, thought

Stops:

Satiety via baroreceptors in the gut

Hormones releases in gut while eating

Allostatic load

All the stressors on someone’s body from internal factors and external factors (eg. Healthcare access, pollution etc)

Multiple stressors over the years effects your body’s abilities

Sensory specific satiety

Getting tired of one type of food/flavor but when new flavor offered appetite renewed

Combatted by companies by:

• bliss point (combo of fat, salt, sugar that helps overcome)

• Pleasing mouthfeel

• Vanishing caloric density (reduces perception of foods consumed)

• Line extension of food in new packaging/flavors

White fat

• in sulates body, cushions organs, stores energy and vitamins (eg. lipid bilayer of cell membrane, myelin sheath around nerve fibers in the brain) 

  • What's in a white fat cell = a large lipid droplet, mostly triglycerides

  • Number of white fat cells doesn’t decrease, but it can increase 

  • Types of white fat: Subcutaneous, visceral, intramuscular (abnormal in non athletes), liver (abnormal)

Subcutaneous fat

•  fat below the skin, less harmful metabolically, cushion, passive insulation (eg. cellulite, liposuction) 

  • Subcutaneous WAT secretes hormones that are helpful for glucose handling and satiety > good for you!  

Visceral fat

• around the organs inside the body wall, more harmful metabolically 

  • Visceral WAT secrets inflammatory shit that is bad for you and can cause health problems

Bone marrow fat

• fat cells found in marrow, nobody really knows what they do, has been related to different health issues (marrow fat often higher when bone mass is lower) but unsure how related > could be energy storage??

  • All red bone marrow at the beginning of life > is producing red blood cells! When you get older marrow becomes mostly yellow = now contains fat cells, it stays red marrow in the pelvis/lumbar spine 

Brown fat

• uses energy instead of storing it, to make heat! Releases heat instead of ATP

  • Made brown because these fat cells have lots of mitochondria which releases uncoupling protein (UCP1) which uncouples protons to prevent creation of ATP and instead (triggered by feeling cold) 

  • Amount of white adipose tissue you have impacts how much brown adipose tissue you have 

Energy = body money

• Energy status = $ in bank account 

• Energy balance = do the $ in equal the $ out 

• Energy flux = rate of $ moving through the account 

• Chronic positive energy balance > greater energy storage 

Bathtub theory

•  if every place the fat is supposed to be is full it will spill over to places its not supposed to be > fat cant be deposited into subcutaneous depots due to genetics, smoking etc

BMI

• Body mass in kilograms / height in square meters (kg/m^2) 

• Range is lowk super wrong because doesn’t accommodate for body composition/distribution of fat  

• To actually understand body fat vs lean tissue you would need a DXA or Air displacement plethysmography 

Metabolic obesity

• Normal BMI but high VAT > higher risk for insulin resistance and T2D

  • Basically normal weight from bmi standpoint but high amount of VAT which puts them at risk for health problems 

  • Might not be recognized by a doctor because not obvious 

Low calorie diet

• usually also low fat bc fat has more calories

• Trying to put body in negative energy balance > encourage body to used stored fat for energy

• Don’t usually work long term bc hard to maintain

Low GI diets

• thought is that keeping insulin levels lower makes you less hungry so you’ll eat less calories

• Problems long term health wise, tends to be pretty restrictive

Complementary proteins

Combo of plant + protein foods providing all 9 essential amino acids (eg. Rice and beans)

Raw food diet

Thought is that cooking foods makes them lose nutrients > so eating them raw would be healthier

WRONG our bodies do not do well with raw good, ends up lowering body mass bc of negative energy balance but fucks up hormones

Fad diets

All use negative energy balance, tend to have fast results but not long lasting and very nutritionally unbalanced

Usually loss of water weight bc glycogen is stored with water

Frequently attribute change to magic enzyme but its almost always just low calorie

Starvation

Post absorptive state, negative energy balance

When you’ve absorbed everything from the last meal you ate so everything you do is based on what calories your body has stored

3 stages of starvation

Phase 1: post absorptive, body has digested most recent food eaten

• energy comes from blood glucose/glycogen, fatty acids

Phase 2: primarily fat burning

• Glucose/glycogen reduced or gone

• Body turns to fatty acids, metabolizes them to be acetyl CoA

Phase 3: muscle breakdown

• deamination of proteins (removes nitrogen) and converts to acetyl CoA » very very dangerous

Physiologic changes during starvation

BMR drops, body temp drops, reproduction and other maintenance related things arent getting energy

Decreased insulin, increased glucagon and cortisol

Bone marrow decreases

Lessons of MSS

Starvation has effects on personality as well as physical body and also on mental abilities

Needed an intense amount of food per day to recover and many found they could never feel full for a while afterwards (took upwards of 3 months to feel fully healthy)

Marasmus

Prolonged negative energy balance with or without inadequate protein

• gross weight loss

• Hyper alert and hungry

• Little subcutaneous fat or muscle

• Very susceptible to pneumonia

Kwashiorkor

Protein defiency relative to energy balance

• decreased muscle mass

• Swollen belly, edema

• Fatty liver

• Changes in skin pigment

• Hair lightens and things

• Increased infection rates

Effects of undernutrition on children

Reduced growth rates » stunting (developing too short for your age)

Weight loss » wasting (developing too light for your age)

More susceptible to infections and illnesses