REL223 Midterm

Indus Valley Civilization

dr knights slide said 2750 BCE (possibly older)

knott book says 2600-1800 BCE

One of the world’s earliest urban civilizations in present-day Pakistan and northwest India; known for planned cities like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa and advanced drainage systems.

Aryan Migration

estimated time of arrival of Aryans: 2000 - 1500 BCE

Indo-European-speaking peoples migrated into northwest India; composed the Vedas and shaped early Vedic religion and early varna system.

Epic Period

c. 500 BCE–200 CE.

Period when the Mahabharata and Ramayana were composed and compiled; development of dharma and classical Hindu thought.

Muslim Rule in India

1206–1857 CE.

Includes Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) and Mughal Empire (1526–1857); major Islamic political rule in India.

British Rule in India

1757–1947 CE.

Began with British East India Company control; direct Crown rule from 1858; ended with independence.

Indian Independence and Partition

1947

India gained independence from Britain; partition created India and Pakistan.

Shruti

"That which is heard." Most sacred Hindu texts believed to be divinely revealed (includes Vedas and Upanishads).

Smriti

"That which is remembered." Traditional texts of human authorship (epics, sutras, puranas, law codes, etc.).

Vedas

Oldest Hindu scriptures (c. 1500–500 BCE); hymns, rituals, and prayers central to early Vedic religion.

Upanishads

Philosophical texts exploring Brahman, Atman, karma, samsara, and moksha.

Ramayana

Epic telling the story of Rama rescuing Sita from Ravana; teaches dharma and devotion.

• Ram as ideal kshatriya and ideal king

• Sita as ideal wife

Mahabharata

Massive epic about a dynastic war between cousins (Pandavas and Kauravas); contains the Bhagavad Gita.

Bhagavad Gita

700-verse dialogue between Krishna and Arjuna about duty (dharma), selfless action, devotion, and liberation.

Explains that there are many religious paths, many paths to liberation.

• Karma yoga

• Jnana yoga

• Bhakti yoga

Samsara

Cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.

Karma

Law of cause and effect; actions determine future consequences.

Moksha

Liberation from samsara (cycle of rebirth).

Think of nirvana

Dharma

Moral duty; righteous living according to cosmic and social order.

Brahman

Ultimate, formless reality underlying everything.

Atman

The eternal individual soul; in many traditions identical with Brahman.

Vedanta

Philosophical system based on the Upanishads focusing on Brahman and Atman.

Vedantin

A follower of Vedanta philosophy.

Advaita Vedanta

Non-dualistic Vedanta; teaches Atman and Brahman are identical.

• believed by Shankara, an 8th and 9th Century CE Philosopher

• dvaita = dual but a at the beginning of “advaita” negates the word so advaita = non dual

• Shankara believed that we’re all ultimately Brahman (we’re all ultimately one)

Shankara

• 8th and 9th century CE philosopher

• believed that everything was Brahman

  • believe that we’re all ultimately Brahman (one self)

• remember Shankara and alcohol story

• Shankara was deeply influenced by Buddhism

• this thinking had a big influence on thinkers that came to the US and Europe

Ramanuja

• 11th-12th Century CE

• in the middle of Shankara and Madhva’s ideas

• unlike Shankara, Ramanuja didn’t believe that the differences we see are illusions

• God = Vishnu; he was devoted to Vishnu, believed worshipping Vishnu was good and better than trying to understand abstract concepts

  • believed God wanted them to worship

• he focused on worship as a way to gain moksha

• thought Brahman and atman were related, but not the same

Madhva

• 13th Century CE

• believed in dvaita; he was a dualist

• to him, Shankara was very wrong; he believed atman (the soul) and Brahman were COMPLETELY DIFFERENT. atman ≠ brahman

• God = Krishna. Madhva was a big devotee to Krishna

  • believed there were no similarities between humans and God

• moksha looked like worshipping Krishna and asking for blessings

Indra

Vedic storm and warrior god.

Agni

Vedic fire god; carries offerings to the gods.

Manusmriti

Ancient Hindu law text outlining social duties and caste rules.

Four ashramas listed here (student, house holder, forest dweller, sannyasi)

Varna-Ashrama-Dharma

System combining social class (varna) and life stage (ashrama) duties.

“…foundational Hindu concept organizing society into four classes (varna) and four life stages (ashrama) to promote social harmony, duty (dharma), and spiritual growth. It dictates individual responsibilities based on natural aptitude and age, aiming for a balanced life that culminates in liberation.”

Varna

Four broad social classes in traditional Hindu society.

- brahmin, kshatriya, vaishya, shudra

• classes of society

• were organized hierarchically

• first three classes were called “twice-born,” with boys being given a second thread in an initiation ceremony. only “twice-born” males are entitled to hear the Veda (Knott 18)

Jati

Birth-based caste subgroup within the varna system.

• caste

• jati means “birth”

• system of social divisions organized according to relative purity, with brahmins at one end of the spectrum (the highest) and dalit people (or untouchables) on the other end

Brahmin

Priestly class responsible for rituals and teaching.

The mouth.

Kshatriya

Warrior and ruler class.

The arms.

Vaishya

Merchant and agricultural class.

The thighs.

Shudra

Laboring and service class.

The feet.

Dalit

Group historically considered outside the varna system; formerly called "untouchables."

• the “untouchables”

• those at the very bottom; low caste

• considered impure and polluting to so-called “higher” castes

• forced to live outside the village, away from everyone else

Ashrama

Four life stages: student, householder, forest-dweller, renunciant (sannyasa).

• stages of life (4)

• conveys the idea of duties or obligations which fall to a person according to their particular social class and stage of life

• only “twice-born’ males undertook the original Ashrama

Sannyasi/Sannyasini

Male/female renouncer who has left worldly life to seek moksha.

Yugas

Four cosmic ages (Satya, Treta, Dvapara, Kali) that cycle through time.

Avatar

Divine incarnation, especially of Vishnu.

Bhakti

Devotional love and worship of a personal god.

Puja

ceremonial ritual worship involving offerings, prayer, and devotion to a deity

purpose… to express love, devotion, and surrender to the Divine, fostering spiritual growth and self-purification.

Vishnu

Preserver god in the Hindu trinity; associated with avatars like Rama and Krishna.

Lakshmi

Goddess of wealth and prosperity; consort of Vishnu.

Krishna

Avatar of Vishnu; teacher of the Bhagavad Gita.

Rama

Avatar of Vishnu; hero of the Ramayana; ideal king.

Sita

Wife of Rama; symbol of virtue and devotion.

Shiva

God of destruction and transformation; associated with asceticism and meditation.

Parvati

Wife of Shiva; mother goddess.

Devi

The Great Goddess; supreme feminine divine in some traditions.

Another name for her is “shakti”

Shakti

Divine feminine energy or cosmic power.

Ganesha

Elephant-headed god; remover of obstacles.

Hanuman

Monkey devotee of Rama; symbol of loyalty and devotion.

Ravana

Demon king of Lanka; antagonist in the Ramayana.

Arjuna

Warrior prince in the Mahabharata; recipient of Krishna’s teachings.

Karma Yoga

Path of selfless action without attachment to results.

Jnana Yoga

Path of knowledge and wisdom leading to liberation.

Bhakti Yoga

Path of devotion to a personal god leading to liberation.

Date - Indus Valley Civilization

dr knights slide said 2750 BCE (possibly older)

knott book says 2600-1800 BCE

Date - Aryan Invasion/Migration

c. 1500 BCE (approximate)

estimated time of arrival of Aryans: 2000 - 1500 BCE

Date - Epic Period (Mahabharata and Ramayana Era)

c. 500 BCE – 200 CE

Date - Muslim Rule in India

1206-1857

Delhi Sultanate: 1206–1526 CE
Mughal Empire: 1526–1857 CE

Date - British Rule

1757–1947

Date - Independence/Partition

1947