Topic 41. The Romanisation of Britain. Influence of Latin on the English Language. Borrowings and Calques.

1. INTRODUCTION

• Unit necessary for students to understand roots, basic diachronic linguistics, history of language.

• Culture can never be detached from language learning. British Council for Teens website (resources).

• Series and movies (Britannia, The Last Kingdom, the Pillars of the Earth)

• LOMLOE, RD: socio-cultural competence, communicative competence

2. VOCABULARY AS A MIRROR OF HISTORY

Introductory paragraph

• Each language = world in itself, what happens when we encounter a language shaped by the convergence of several linguistic worlds?

• Germanic language that has come in contact with Old Norse, Latin, and French, THROUGH:

  • Cultural and scholarly contact (adoption of Latin and Italian terms during the Renaissance)

  • Conquest and settlement (Vikings, Danelaw; Normans 1066)

  • Work of individual writers (translation of works and literary innovation)

2. VOCABULARY AS A MIRROR OF HISTORY

2.1. Features of the English language

• Highly mixed vocabulary.

• Close relation with German, Dutch, Frisian, Scandi languages

• Absorbed substancial vocab from French, Latin, and other Romance languages which created a significant lexical overlap with Romance languages.

• English’s remarkable capacity to incorporate and adapt external influence.

2. VOCABULARY AS A MIRROR OF HISTORY

2.2. Brief history of the English people.

2.2.1. The Celts

• First to speak an Indo-European language still preserved today (Welsh or Gaelic)

• Celtic groups were eventually subdued by the Romans, who arrived in 43AD.

2. VOCABULARY AS A MIRROR OF HISTORY

2.2. Brief history of the English people.

2.2.2. The Romans

• Roman Empire became Christian under Emp. Constantine (4th century)

• Britannia gradually became Christian

• 410 AD → Roman forces withdrew from Britain to protect other parts of the Empire, ending 4 centuries of establishment

• Latin did NOT replace Celtic languages, Brythonic (Celtic tongue) remained

• Still Latin impacted in the language of administration and infrastructure.

2. VOCABULARY AS A MIRROR OF HISTORY

2.2. Brief history of the English people.

2.2.3. The Anglo-Saxons

• English began to take shape in the 5th century ad when Angles, Saxons, Frisians, and Jutes settled in England.

• Celtic resistance was futile against them. Imposed serfdom (confined them to Wales, Cornwall and Cumbria)

• Founded Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy (Northumbria, Mercia, Wessex, Essex, Sussex, Kent)

• 11th century onward, name England emerged from Anglecynn or Angle-kin.

2. VOCABULARY AS A MIRROR OF HISTORY

2.2. Brief history of the English people.

2.2.4. The Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England

• 597 AD → Pope Gregory I sent Saint Augustine to Canterbury, which marked the beginning of conversions to Christianity.

• Foundation of monasteries and churches by missionaries introduced religious terms like “abbott” or “bishop” and words connected with education like “school” and “kitchen”.

2. VOCABULARY AS A MIRROR OF HISTORY

2.2. Brief history of the English people.

2.2.5. The Vikings

• Viking invasions from 9th-11th century (hit-and-run and further establishment of Danelaw) introduced Norse influence to the language (reflected in OE, vocabulary, thorn (Þ) or eth (ð)

• Words related to common activities and objects (heofon → ský), 

• The English regained control over the Danelaw with the death of Eric Bloodaxe and the fall of Jorvik.

2. VOCABULARY AS A MIRROR OF HISTORY

2.2. Brief history of the English people.

2.2.6. The Norman Conquest of 1066

• Profound impact on English vocabulary (over 10,000 French words entered language)

• Influence from upper classes who spoke French.

• English was overshadowed by French and Latin.

• Commoners continued to use English in oral communication, and written in religious prose still.

3. THE INFLUENCE OF LATIN ON THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Introduction

• Latin has profoundly shaped the English language throughout its development.

• Latin words had already been adopted by the Anglo-Saxons through their interactions with the Roman Empire

• Influence extends from OE (450-1150), ME (1150-1500), ModE and PDE (1500–)

3. THE INFLUENCE OF LATIN ON THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

3.1. Influence of Latin in OE (450-1150)

• As outlined by Richard Baught, three phases:

  • Zero or Continental Period

  • First Period (Celtic transmission)

  • Second Period (Christianisation of Britain)

3. THE INFLUENCE OF LATIN ON THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

3.1. Influence of Latin in OE (450-1150). 3.1.1. Borrowings in the Continental or Zero Period.

• Latin words entered Germanic dialects through interaction on the Continent (trade with Roman Empire, for example).

• 3.1.1.1. War borrowings:

  • Camp (LAT campus), Wall (vallum), Mile (mille)

• 3.1.1.2. Trade borrowings:

  • Wine (Win → vinus), vinegar (eced)

• 3.1.1.3. Related to domestic life

  • Dish (discus), cup (cuppe)

• 3.1.1.4. Food items

  • Cheese (ciese), pipar (pepper)

3. THE INFLUENCE OF LATIN ON THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

3.1. Influence of Latin in OE (450-1150). 3.1.2. Borrowings (First Period)

• Latin also entered OE through Celtic intermediaries.

• Celts had adopted 600 Latin words, but few Anglo-Saxon words were adopted due to tensions.

  • Ceaster (Winchester, Chester, Dorchester); Port (LAT PORTIS)

3. THE INFLUENCE OF LATIN ON THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

3.1. Influence of Latin in OE (450-1150). 3.1.3. Borrowings (Second Period, the Christianisation of Britain)

• Again, St. Augustine, 957 AD, monasteries and schools

• 3.1.3.1. The introduction of Christianity: adoption of numerous religious terms like angel, mass, candle, nun, priest, etc.

• 3.1.3.2. The Benedictine Reform: revival of monastic life (10th century)

  • Religion → antichrist, apostle

  • Food → coriander, cucumber

  • Animal names → camel, scorpion

  • Medical terms → cancer

The antichrist met an apostle. They planted some cucumbers in the garden and ate them with some coriander. Then, a scorpion stung the antichrist and gave him cancer, a condition only be reversed by the milk of a camel.

3. THE INFLUENCE OF LATIN ON THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

3.2. Influence of Latin in ME (1150-1500)

Introduction

• ME saw significant linguistic changes: English shifted from a highly inflected language to a more analytical one.

• Case system remained, but changes, for example the drop of the nominal -e (Cyninges → Cynings)

• Introduction of new terms primarily from French and Latin

3. THE INFLUENCE OF LATIN ON THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

3.2. Influence of Latin in ME (1150-1500)

3.2.1. Borrowings from Latin (14th and 15th centuries peak)

• 3.2.1.1. Law: Custody, notary, prosecutor, justice

• 3.2.1.2. Theology: Limbo, Clergy

• 3.2.1.3. Medicine: Medicine, disease, surgery, immune.

• 3.2.1.4. Literature and science: History, infinite, intellect

• 3.2.1.5. Miscellaneous: gesture, polite, reject

• Varying degrees of formality:

  • Kingly → Royal → Regal

  • ENG (colloquial), FR (formal), LAT (scholarly)

3. THE INFLUENCE OF LATIN ON THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

3.2. Influence of Latin in ME (1150-1500)

3.2.2. Latin in official documents and texts.

Introduction

• Latin was not spoken by populace, though William the Conqueror (1070) issued some writings in English and others in Latin, excluding French

• 1080 → Latin was predominantly used for drafting laws

  • 12th century OE laws → translated to Latin, solidifying role as primary language and legal documents.

3. THE INFLUENCE OF LATIN ON THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

3.2. Influence of Latin in ME (1150-1500)

3.2.2. Latin in official documents and texts.

3.2.2.1. Domesday Book

• Commissioned by William the Conqueror and completed in 1086

• Registers properties and land of the country, assessing tax responsibility over ownership.

• Primarily written in Latin, occasionally included English terms with no Latin equivalence.

3. THE INFLUENCE OF LATIN ON THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

3.2. Influence of Latin in ME (1150-1500)

3.2.2. Latin in official documents and texts.

3.2.2.2. The Charter of the Forest

• Issued 1217 as complementary to Carta Magna and also written in Latin.

• Restoring access to royal forests highlighting common land and punishments on offences.

• Critical step in the development of legal rights and liberties, influencing subsequent legal documents.

3. THE INFLUENCE OF LATIN ON THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

3.2. Influence of Latin in ME (1150-1500)

3.2.3. Synonyms and three levels

• OE origin (colloquial), FR (refined), LAT (scholarly use)

ENG. FR. LAT.

Buy. Purchase. Acquire

3. THE INFLUENCE OF LATIN ON THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

3.3. Influence of Latin in ModE and PDE (1500 onward)

Introduction

• Renaissance marked a resurgence of interests in nearly every field of human endeavour.

  • Thus revival of Latin and Greek (Petrarch)

• Creation of vocabulary to meet the needs of expanding knowledge

  • Allusion, agile, adapt.: The allusion of being agile makes humans adapt.

• Criticism referring to these new terms as inkhorn

3. THE INFLUENCE OF LATIN ON THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

3.3. Influence of Latin in ModE and PDE (1500 onward)

3.3.1. Borrowings from this period

• Incorporation of Latin, Greek words or Latinised Greek terms (anaemia, appendicitis)

• 3.3.1.1. Latin-derived prefixes

  • Bi- (bivalve)

  • Circum- (circumference)

  • Extra- (extraterrestrial)

• 3.3.1.2. Latin-derived suffixes

  • -al (su1c1dal)

  • -cy (currency, regency)

  • - ory (obligatory)

4. CALQUES

How are calques understood?

Either like: borrowed words that enter the language unaltered/unchanged or direct translations

4. CALQUES

4.1. Calques and unchanged borrowings

• Alibi, per capita, census, exit.

His alibi was that his per capita rent was 10000 Euro in the census, but he had to exit without them.

4. CALQUES

4.2. Direct translations

• Superman → Übermensch (GE)

• Body language → Lingua corporis (LAT)

• Free verse → Vers libre (FR, LAT roots)

• Deadline → Mortuus linea (conceptual calque)

How many centuries were the Vikings in the British Isles?

3 to 4 centuries: 8th century to 11th century (until Norman Conquest)

In which year was the Charter of the Forest written?

1217

In which year was the Domesday Book written?

1086 (Commissioned by William the Conqueror)