Organic Chemistry Study Guide - Chapter 21-23

Nuclear Fission

A very heavy nucleus splits into more-stable nuclei of intermediate mass (enormous amounts of energy are released)

Nuclear fission occurs

Spontaneously or when nuclei are bombarded by particles

Nuclear chain reaction

A reaction in which the material that starts the reaction is also one of the products and can start another reaction

Critical mass

The minimum amound of nuclide that provides a number of neutrons needed to sustain a chain reaction

Controlled-fission

What nuclear reactors use; chain reactions to produce energy and radioactive nuclides

Nuclear power plants

Use energy as heat from nuclear reactors to product electrical energy

Five main components of nuclear power plants

Shielding, fuel, control rods, moderator, coolant

Shielding

Radiation-absorbing material that is used to decrease exposure to radiation, especially gamma rays, from nuclear reactors

Uranium 235

Typically used as the fissile fuel

Coolant

Absorbs energy as heat that is produced

Control rods

Neutron-absorbing rods that help control the reaction by limiting the number of free neutrons

Moderator

Used to slow down the fast neutrons produced by fission

Organic compounds contain carbon atoms

But not all carbon-containing compounds are classified as organic

How organic compounds can be defined

As covalently bonded compounds containing carbon, excluding carbonates and oxides

Diversity of organic compounds

The uniqueness of carbon’s structure and bonding

Uniqueness of carbon atoms

Their ability to form long chains and rings of covalently bonded atoms

Catenation

The covalent bonding of an element to itself to form chains or rings

Carbon atoms in catenation

Linked by single, double, or triple covalent bonds

Besides binding to other carbon atoms,

Carbon atoms bind readily to elements with similar electronegatives

Hydrocarbons

Composed of only carbon and hydrogren (simplest organic compounds)

Hydrocarbon backbones

To which other elements, primarily O, N, S, and the halogens are attached

The bonding capabilities of carbon

Allow for many different arrangement of atoms

Isomers

Compounds that have the same molecular formula but different structures

Structural formulas

Used to represent organic compounds

What a structural formula indicates

The number and types of atoms present in a molecule and also shows the bonding arrangement of the atoms

Structural isomers

Known as consitutional isomers; isomers in which the atoms are bonded together in different orders

Geometric isomers

Isomers in which the order of atom bonding is the same but the arrangement of atoms in space is different

How geometric isomers occur

Due to restricted rotations, usually around a double bond

Cis

Similar groups on the same side

Trans

Similar groups on opposite sides

Stronger intermolecular forces

Higher boiling point

Saturated hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons in which each carbon atom in the molecule forms four single covalent bonds with other atoms

Alkanes

Hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds

Straight-chain alkanes

Differ from one another by one carbon atom and two hydrogen atoms

Homologous series

One in which adjacent members differ by a constant unit

General molecular formula

Used to determine the formulas of all members of a homologous series

Cycloalkanes

Alkanes in which the carbon atoms are arranged in a ring, or cyclic, structure

General formula for cycloalkanes

C_nH_2n (shows that they have 2 x n hydrogen atoms, two fewer hydrogen atoms than noncyclic alkanes, C_nH_2n+2)

Systematic naming method

Became necessary because of the many organic compounds that are possible

IUPAC

Systematic naming method was developed by International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

Alkyl groups

Groups of atoms that are formed when one hydrogen atom is removed from an alkane molecule

Carbon-hydrogen bonds of alkanes

Nonpolar, so alkane molecules are nonpolar

Weak London dispersion forces

The only forces of attraction between nonpolar molecules

London dispersion forces

Stronger when the molecules are larger so larger states of alkanes are function of their molecule size

Gases

Alkanes that have lower mass (those with one to four carbon atoms)

Boiling point of alkanes

Increase with molecule mass

As London dispersion forces increase,

More energy is required to pull the molecules apart

Petroleum

A complex mixture of different hydrocarbons that varies greatly in composition

The range of 1 to more than 50 carbon atoms

Allows the separation of petroleum into different portions that have different boiling point ranges

Fractional distillation

Components of a mixture are separated on the basis of boiling point, by condensation of vapor in a fractionating column

An unsaturated hydrocarbon has one or more double bonds or

Triple bonds between carbon atoms

Alkenes

Hydrocarbons that contain double covalent bonds

An alkene with one double bond has

Two fewer hydrogen atoms than the corresponding alkane

Alkenes are nonpolar

And show trends in properties similar to those of alkanes in boiling points and physical states

Ethene

The smallest alkene, is a gas and is commonly called ethylene

Ethene is a plant hormone that

Triggers fruit ripening

Alkynes

Hydrocarbons with triple covalent bonds

Aromatic hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons that have six-membered carbon rings and delocalized electrons

Benzene

The primary aromatic hydrocarbon (C₆H₆)(does not behave chemically like an alkene)

Functional group

Gives an organic compound properties that are very different from those of the corresponding hydrocarbon

Alcohols

Organic compounds that contain one or more hydroxyl groups

General formula for a class of organic compounds

Consists of the functional group and the letter R, which stands for the rest of the molecule

General formula for alcohol

R—OH

Hydroxyl group, -OH, of alcohols makes them

Able to hydrogen-bond, and also makes them soluble in water

Alkyl halides

Organic compounds in which one or more halogen atoms are substituted for one or more hydrogen atoms in a hydrocarbon

General formula of an alkyl halide

R—X

General formula for an ether

R—O—R

Carbonyl group

Aldehydes and ketones contain this group

Aldehydes

Organic compounds in which the carbonyl group is attached to a carbon atom at the end of a carbon-carbon chain

Ketones

Organic compounds in which the carbonyl group is attached to carbon atoms within the chain

Amines

Organic compouds that can be considered to be derivaties of ammonia

Carboxylic acid

Organic compounds that contain the carboxyl functional group

Substitution reaction

One in which one or more atoms replace another atom or group of atoms in a molecule

Addition reaction

One in which two parts of a molecule are added to an unsaturated molecule, increasing the saturation of the molecule

Hydrogenation

An example of addition reaction; the addition of hydrogen atoms to an unsaturated molecule

Condensation reaction

One in which two molevules or parts of the same molecule combine

Elimination reaction

One in whch a simple molecule, such as water or ammonia, is formed from adjacent carbon atoms of a larger molecules

Polymers

Large molecules made of many small units joined to each other through oranic reactions

Monomers

Small units that make up a polymer

Copolymer

Polymer made from two or more different monomers

Addition polymer

Polymer formed by addition reactions between monomers that contain a double bond

Condensation polymer

Polymer formed by condensation reaction

Monomers of condensation polymers

Must contain two functional groups; this allows each monomer to link with two other monomers by condensation reactions