IDS 3330

What was Italy like before its unification?

It was a fragmented territory

What political movement and key events led to the birth of the Italian nation, including the Risorgimento?

The Risorgimento, which means resurgence or revival was a political movement for independence after a century of foreign occupation

What is the meaning of Rinascimento? What does it relate to?

It means renaissance, which is related to the rebirth of classical learning and arts, making it a predominantly artistic and cultural movement.

When was the Kingdom of Italy proclaimed? When did Rome become the capital of the new Kingdom of Italy?

The Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed in 1861 and Rome was proclaimed the capital in 1870.

Why did the process of Rome becoming the capital of the new kingdom take time?

Despite the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861, Rome was still under the Pope's control and it was defended by a French army division. In 1870, when France was invaded by Russia, French forces were withdrawn from Rome, allowing the Italians to take control and proclaim it as their capital. Even after the proclamation of Rome as capital, two regions-Trento and Trieste-were still a part of the Austrian Empire.

What cities were capital before Rome?

Turin, which was the first capital, then Florence for just five years.

How did foreign occupations impact the Italian peninsula before and during unification?

Prior to unification, most of the Northeast was part of the Austrian Empire, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany was ruled by an Austrian dynasty, the Papal State was independent and similar to the Vatican, but expanded to the entire central Italy, and the Kingdom of Naples had a Spanish-Bourbon dynasty. Italy experienced this foreign occupation for a century before the Risorgimento.

What happened to Italy after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire?

Italy remained divided into different states for an additional 14 centuries, making it impossible to establish political continuity. The unification in 1870 was the first single administration since the Romans.

How did the division following the collapse of the Western Roman empire impact gastronomic fields?

The diversity resulting from the division and political weakness exposed Italy to the strength of larger neighbors, enriching the diet with many different products and ingredients.

What role did WWI play in the final territorial formation of Italy?

WWI ended the three major empires: the Ottoman Empire, the Austrian Empire, and the Russian Empire. At the end of WWI the two regions that remained part of the Austrian Empire after Rome was proclaimed the capital-Trento and Trieste-became a part of Italy (1918). Trieste, in particular, was vital to the Austrian empire because it was their major port and sole access to the sea.

What were the main differences between Italy's history as a political entity and its history as a cultural entity?

As a political entity, Italy has a little over one and a half years of history. As a cultural entity however, they have one of the longest histories in Europe with over 2,000 years, which dates back to before the Roman civilizations.

How did Mussolini attempt to create a sense of political continuity with ancient Rome? Why was this considered propaganda?

Mussolini pretended to be the head of Rome and "new Ceaser," anticipating that a "new Rome" would come again and that the Mediterranean would become an empire but this was propaganda because it is impossible to establish the political continuity between the Roman Empire and modern Italy.

Why is political continuity difficult to establish between the Roman empire and modern Italy?

It is difficult to establish political continuity between the Roman empire and modern Italy because of the centuries of division. Since Italy remained divided for an additional 14 centuries after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, the long period of fragmentation and foreign rule made it impossible to maintain a continuous political line between the two.

How do food and gastronomy provide a continuous thread throughout Italian history? How does this differ from its political history?

While politically Italy remained divided until 1870, its gastronomy continuously evolved and remained resilient as it drew from its ancient roots and diverse regional influences, weaving a consistent narrative through the ages and transcending geographical and political boundaries.

What role do geography and climate play in shaping gastronomic traditions?

The underlying geography and climate of the Italian peninsula remained and consistently provided the natural resources that shaped and preserved its diverse and continuous culinary identity.

What three items were found at Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Wine, bread, and olive oil.

What did they represent in Roman agriculture and gastronomy?

The wine, bread, and olive oil found in Pompeii and Herculaneum represented the basic triad of roman agriculture and gastronomy. Later, wine and bread became part of the Christian eucharist as they represent the passage of man.

How do the items found remain relevant in Italian meals today?

They highlight how ancient Roman gastronomic staples continue to be foundational to modern Italian meals, underscoring the consistency of Italy's cultural identity due to its correlation to geography and climate.

Why is Apicius’s De re culinaria significant?

It is the first culinary treatise and a major source of knowledge of the Roman collection of recipes, informing us what the ancient Romans ate.

When was Apicius’s De re culinaria written? What information does it provide regarding Roman cuisine?

It was written in the first century after Christ (1 A.D.) and describes Roman recipes and ingredients of those dishes.

How was Apicius’s De re culinaria re-discovered and re-published during the Risorgimento?

With the collapse of the Roman empire, De re culinaria was forgotten during the Middle Ages. In the 14th century, it was rediscovered within the city-states that characterized Italy at the time, mostly between Florence and Rome. It was found in monasteries, where monastic libraries had preserved ancient manuscripts by copying them. The re-discovery played a role in the broader humanism movement, which set the basis for the Renaissance. In the 16th century the book was “discovered and published in printing.”

What major invention facilitated the wider dissemination of Apicius’s De re culinaria?

The printing press, which was invented by Gutenberg in Germany, facilitated the wider dissemination of Apicius’s De re culinaria.

What did Bartolomeo Sacchi (Platina) contribute to culinary literature?

Platina published the first printed cookbook in the Western world.

What was the title of Platina's book? Why is it significant in the modern age?

Platina’s cookbook De Honesta Voluptate et Valetudine (1474) was written in Latin, which was the common language for those across Europe up until the 16th century. It is significant in modern age as it was labeled the first culinary treaty written in modern times and brought him fame after being nominated by the Pope as Prefect of the Vatican Library.

What was the concept of "honorable pleasure and good health" introduced by Platina?

This concept promoted a mindful approach to food consumption by distinguishing eating a good, balanced, healthy way from eating for eating's sake, which was a sin by the church (gluttony).

How did Pellegrino Artusi’s Science in the Kitchen and the Art of Eating Well impact Italian gastronomy and social life?

Artusi's book that was published in Florence in 1891, united traditions from different regions of Italy, making it the first national cookbook. This cookbook helped bridge the gap between diverse regional cuisines and vocabularies that existed after the unification of Italy.

Why is Artusi's book considered a "classic of Italian literature" and a "staple in every Italian household?"

Artusi’s book is a classic in gastronomic and general Italian literature, demonstrated by its widespread presence in Italian homes, highlighting its deep integration into Italian culture and social life, making it comparable to a Bible for Italian families.

How did Artusi's work contribute to the unification of Italy?

Artusi's book is often referred to as "the book that made Italians" by historians, and in the aftermath of the Risorgimento, his book unified Italians by bringing together diverse regional culinary traditions, creating a "gastronomic mosaic with some unified motifs."

How does the central position of the Italian peninsula in the Mediterranean expose it to various migrations and occupations?

The central position of the Italian peninsula has exposed it to invasions from different populations that occupied parts of the Mediterranean basin over the centuries. The centrality of the peninsula made a crossroad for any civilization developed around the Mediterranean, leading to continuous waves of influence and control from different empires and groups nearby.

How does the fragmented geography of Italy expose it to various migrations and occupations?

Italy is largely composed of mountains, hills, and rivers, meaning when foreign populations settled in them, they only occupied parts of them. The natural partition prolonged divisions, making it easier for various foreign powers to control specific regions because it did not require dominance throughout the entire peninsula.

How did the diversity-brought on by Italy's exposure to various migrations and occupations and seen as a political weakness at times-become a richness in gastronomy?

The constant influx of different populations enriched the diet and gastronomy with different products and ingredients. Each group left a distinct culinary heritage that contributed to the gastronomic mosaic.

How do the current diverse culinary traditions reflect the historical administrative division of Italy into regions?

Although Italy today is divided into 20 regions (Legoioni), their culinary traditions directly reflect or correspond with the historical administrative divisions and occupations by populations such as the Etruscans, Greeks, and Celts prior to the unification. As a result of this, many historians argue that there is no one category of Italian food; Instead, there is Sicilian, Tuscan, Pompeanian food. This argument is backed up by the strong difference seen today that traces back 2,000 years.

What were the pre-Roman civilizations that occupied Italy?

The Entruscans who occupied Tuscany; The Phoenicians who occupied Italian islands; The Greeks who established colonies in Southern Italy; And the Celts who settled in northern Italy, specifically in the Po Valley, north of the Apennine mountains.

Who were the Etruscans? What did they develop?

They are considered the first Italians and they developed an advanced form of agriculture, including crop rotation, which allowed them to produce surplus and export to other populations. This created a wealthy population with a sophisticated gastronomy and high standard of living.

What were the Enstrucan's culinary contributions? How did their contributions influence later Italian gastronomy?

They produced surpluses and traded grains such as barley, wheat, and farro-which is still common in Tuscan dishes today. Their diets also included pulses and vegetables, such as green peas, chickpeas, and fava beans. As for meat, they typically ate chicken and pork, but strayed away from beef as they valued cows for their dairy and cheeses. Lastly, they incorporated olive oil and wine into their gastronomy after learning the processes of wine and bread making from the Greeks.

What were the Phoenicians's culinary contributions? How did their contributions influence later Italian gastronomy?

The Phoenicians, who were known as the first great merchants and seafarers of the Mediterranean, introduced fruits and nuts to Italy. These included figs, dates, almonds, and pistachios, which originated from the Middle East and later became typical in dishes from various Italian regions. They also introduced a type of onion called scallions (scalogno) which originated in Ascalon, Israel. The scallion is still widely used throughout Italy, especially in dishes such as risotto.

What were the Greeks's culinary contributions? How did their contributions influence later Italian gastronomy?

The Greeks were vital to Italian agriculture and cuisine as they introduced wheat, olive oil, and wine. They had developed wine and bread making techniques in 1000 B.C. and brought them to Southern Italy. Additionally, they developed sedentary agriculture, which was a sign of civilization, as opposed to hunting and gathering, which was associated with nomadic life. Lastly, they introduced a strong tradition of conviviality, including the concept of the symposium, which literally means "drinking together," but for the Greeks it was an intellectual gathering among philosophers and scholars drinking wine.

What were the Celt's culinary contributions? How did their contributions influence later Italian gastronomy?

The Celts introduced advanced techniques for extracting salt from the earth, which was crucial for food preservations. They also held a passion for swine, which when coupled with their salt extraction abilities, led to the development of typical cold cuts, including prosciutto. Their influence has lasted to this day, as the best prosciutto comes from Parma, which was historically a Celtic territory. Their legacy has also lasted in northern Italy, specifically in towns where there are "more pigs than people."

Why is bread a central symbol of the Roman diet?

Bread was a staple food in Roman diets as they absorbed Etruscan habits. It is a symbol of their diets and its importances comes from the continuation of the influence.

What is garum? What are the ingredients? What is its purpose and importance in Roman cuisine?

Garum is a classic Roman sauce made with fish and vinegar, fermented, and kept in vases. It was used to add flavor, as according to Apicius, if a dish was bland, garum would add a very strong flavor. It was an important addition because it could be easily transported since it was fermented and would not spoil in heat. Additionally, garum was a perfect match for bread, which allowed for a large consumption of bread.

Why did Romans prefer sweet and sour dishes? What were the sources of the sweetness and sourness?

The sour of the Roman dishes was from the vinegar, which was a derivative of wine, and the sweet came from the honey. Apicius stated that if a dish is salty, then honey should be added.

What was saffron used for in Roman cooking?

Saffron was used in Roman cooking to add color to food. According to Apicius, a dish should look nice so it should have the appropriate color, which was the purpose of saffron, or propter colore. Today, saffron is an important ingridient in risotto as it gives it a yellow color.

What general categories of food were staples of Roman cooking that remain relevant in modern Italian cooking?

The triad of Roman agriculture (wine, bread, and olive oil), grains (wheat and barley), pulses and vegetables (green peas, chickpeas, lentils, and fava beans), meat (chicken and pork), spices (pepper and saffron), and fruits (olives, pears, and figs).

What types of utensils were used by Romans?

The Romans used spoons to eat garum or soups, but the rest was eaten by hand without utensils.

What were tavernas and thermopolia? Why were they prevalent in Roman cities like Pompeii?

Tavernas and thermopolias were street food shops in Roman cities. The name thermopolia is derived from "thermopolium" which directly translates to hot table, which indicated that hot dishes were served. These street food shops were highly prevalent in Roman cities, such as Pompeii, sugesting a culture of rating out and a demand for hot, ready-to-eat dishes. Remains of dishes such as duck, pork, fish, and fava beans, have been found in excavated thermopolia, which indicate the types of dishes served.

How do ancient Roman eateries connect to modern Italian tavola calda establishments?

Modern tavola calda establishments are directly connected to ancient Roman thermopolias as they are places one can go to buy a hot dish to take tp gp, such as pasta, a second course, or a side dish. The name also directly translates to hot table, mirroring "thermopolium." The relation between the two demonstrates a direct continuity in the concept of quick, hot, and ready-to-eat food establishments.