Untitled Flashcards Set

What does the term 'Gestalt' mean in psychology?

German for 'The whole'.

What is the difference between 'figure-ground' and 'form perception'?

Figure-ground determines figure from background; form perception involves grouping.

What does 'proximity' refer to in perception?

Perceived groups based on the closeness of objects.

What is 'continuity' in perceptual psychology?

Aligned visual elements believed to be continuous.

How does 'connectedness' influence perception?

Similar characteristics being in the same group or unit.

What is 'closure' in perception?

The brain fills in gaps in its perception.

What is the role of two eyes in depth perception?

Depth perception is caused by the different viewpoints of two eyes.

Define 'convergence' in the context of vision.

When two eyes move inward to see near objects and outward to see faraway objects.

How does 'relative size' affect our perception of objects?

We perceive similar-sized objects with the smaller retrieval image as farther away.

What is 'interposition' in perceptual depth cues?

Objects that block other objects are perceived as closer.

What does 'linear perspective' indicate in perception?

Parallel lines appear to converge in the distance, suggesting depth.

What is 'relative motion' or 'motion parallax'?

Objects closer to a fixation point move faster in an opposing direction than those farther away.

How does 'light and shadow' affect depth perception?

Nearby objects reflect more light, making them appear closer.

What is the 'stroboscopic motion'?

Apparent motion created by a rapid series of still images.

Define 'phi phenomenon'.

Apparent motion created by lights flashing in sequence.

What is the 'autokinetic effect'?

Imagining the movement of still objects in a dark room.

What does 'perceptual constancy' allow us to do?

Recognize objects without being deceived by changes in shape, size, brightness, or color.

What is 'size constancy' in perception?

We perceive objects as having a constant size despite changes in projected image size.

Explain 'Ponzo illusion'.

Objects appear different in size even though they are the same size.

What does 'light/brightness constancy' refer to?

We perceive objects as having constant lightness despite varying illumination.

What is a 'dotal stimulus'?

The actual object 'out there' in the world.

Define 'proximal stimulus'.

Representation of objects in proximity.

What is 'sensory deprivation'?

The lack of a particular sense that can lead to hallucination developments.

What is a 'perceptual set'?

A bias to perceive certain aspects of available sensory data while ignoring others.

What is a 'schema'?

A framework used to organize and interpret unfamiliar information.

What is the 'context effect' in perception?

How you perceive things based on surrounding context.

How does motivation affect perception?

It biases the interpretation of neutral stimuli.

Define 'social schema'.

Mental representation of a group of people.

What is an 'object schema'?

Ideas and knowledge about objects, like pencils.

What does 'self-schema' refer to?

Ideas about yourself that influence how you perceive your identity.

What is an 'algorithm' in problem-solving?

A set of rules that always leads to the correct solution, like in rock climbing.

What is a 'heuristic'?

A rule of thumb strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently.

What does 'working backwards' involve in problem-solving?

Starting at the solution and working back to find the path.

Define 'mental set'.

A tendency to solve problems in a specific way.

What is 'functional fixedness'?

The inability to think of things outside of their usual function.

What is 'insight' in problem-solving?

A sudden realization of the solution to a problem.

Define 'confirmation bias'.

The tendency to look for answers that confirm our preexisting opinions.

What is 'fixation' in problem-solving?

The inability to see a problem from a new perspective.

What is 'availability heuristic'?

Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory.

Define 'belief bias'.

The tendency for preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning.

What is 'belief perseverance'?

Clinging to initial conceptions even after the basis for them is proven wrong.

Define 'cognitive dissonance'.

When actions contradict beliefs.

What is 'framing' in psychology?

The way something is presented changes how you view it.

What is 'inductive logical thinking'?

Beginning with observation, identifying patterns, and then developing a theory.

Define 'deductive logical thinking'.

Starting with a theory, formulating a hypothesis, collecting data to test, and analyzing results.

What is 'predicate thinking'?

An illogical error in logical thinking.

Define 'overgeneralization'.

Jumping to conclusions without evidence or examples.

What is 'false analogy'?

A comparison of two things that are similar in one way but not the other.

What does 'appeal to authority' mean?

A weak reference based on the opinions of authority figures.

What is 'ad hominem'?

A logical argument that attacks the character of a person rather than addressing the argument.

What does 'converging' mean in a general sense?

Bringing different ideas or forces together.

What does 'diverging' refer to?

Splitting or moving apart from a common point.

Define 'memory' in psychology.

Easily malleable and manipulated information retention.

What is 'confabulation'?

The act of misremembering information.

What are the types of confabulation?

Social pressure, partially true memories, and repetitive claims of truth.

What is the 'tip of the tongue phenomenon'?

The inability to initially recall an item despite having hints or partial information.

What is an 'encoding error'?

An error that occurs while recalling or forming a memory due to distractions.

What is 'short-term memory'?

Processes current information and lasts about 30 seconds.

How does 'long-term memory' function?

More solid memories established through repetition.

Define 'von Restorff effect'.

When a word stands out from others in a list.

What is the 'serial position effect'?

The position of a word in a list affects how well it is remembered.

What is the 'primacy effect'?

The tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list better.

What is the 'recency effect'?

The tendency to remember words at the end of a list better.

What is the 'fatigue effect'?

The likelihood of remembering decreases with longer lists.

Define 'constructive memory'.

When you imagine a word was part of a list when it was not.

What is 'rehearsal effect'?

The likelihood of remembering something increases with repetition.

What does 'encoding' mean?

The process of getting information into our brains for storage.

What is 'storage' in the context of memory?

The holding of information in a way that allows later retrieval.

Define 'retrieval' in memory processes.

Activating and recalling information, producing it in a similar form to how it was encoded.

What is 'declarative memory'?

Explicit memory that involves consciously recalling information.

What is 'working memory'?

A short-term storage system for processing limited amounts of information.

What does 'executive functioning' involve?

The ability to follow instructions, converting short term memory to long term.

What is 'episodic memory'?

Memories of specific events or experiences, often personal.

Define 'semantic memory'.

Memory for facts, meanings, and concepts independent of personal experiences.

What is 'nondeclarative/implicit memory'?

Skills and tasks that are performed automatically without conscious thought.

What does 'priming' refer to in memory?

An automatic or unconscious processing that aids memory retrieval.

What is 'repetition priming'?

Faster reading or recognition of material if recently encountered.

Define 'procedural memory'.

Memory for motor skills and actions.

What is 'classical conditioning'?

Learning that involves making associations between stimuli.

How does age affect 'episodic memory'?

Episodic memory tends to decline with age.

What is 'sensory memory'?

A very brief storage of information from sensory receptors.

What does 'chunking' refer to in memory?

Organizing information into manageable units or chunks.

What is 'central/executive functioning'?

Managing cognitive processes and following directions.

What is the 'phonological loop'?

A memory buffer that involves repeating information in your mind.

Define 'visuospatial sketchpad'.

Memory that involves visual and spatial information.

What is 'shallow processing/maintenance rehearsal'?

Focusing on physical features of information without understanding its meaning.

What is 'deep processing/elaborative rehearsal'?

Focusing on meaning and making connections to enhance memory.

What does 'timing of practice' refer to in studying?

The impact of study habits like cramming versus spreading study over time.

What is the 'Pollyanna principle'?

The bias toward remembering positive experiences more than negative ones.

What is 'rosy retrospection'?

The tendency to remember past experiences more positively than they were.

What is the 'testing effect'?

The phenomenon where self-testing improves memory retention.

What is 'self-reference effect'?

The tendency to better remember information related to oneself.

Define 'peg word system'.

A mnemonic technique of associating words with a rhyming word.

What is the 'method of loci'?

A mnemonic technique that involves associating locations with memories.

What does 'generation effect' indicate in learning?

Creating one's own study material increases memory retention.

What is 'encoding failure'?

The inability to properly encode information due to distractions.

What does 'PORN' stand for in memory interference?

Proactive interference (old interferes with new), Retroactive interference (new interferes with old).

What is the 'fan effect' in memory?

The forgetfulness that occurs when too many memories are associated with one cue.

What is 'retrieval-induced forgetting'?

Focusing on one memory can lead to forgetting others.

What does 'encoding specificity' mean?

Easier recall of information when retrieval context matches encoding context.