Ch. 3 - The Use of Theory

Quantitative Theory Use requires

• Defining theory

• Assessing types of variables and their measurement

• Introducing the concept of causality

• Viewing forms of stating theories

• Placing a theory in a proposal or study

• Writing a theory passage

Theory in quantitative research

• a set of interrelated constructs (variables), definitions, and propositions that presents a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of explaining natural phenomena

  • Theory has a purpose and a procedure

    • Purpose is to predict the expected relationship among variables

Theoretical rationale

• specifying how and why the variables and relational statements are interrelated

  • Why would an independent variable (x) influence or affect a dependent variable (y)

    • Provides an explanation for this expectation

Theoretical perspective

• required section for proposals in research when one applies to present a paper

Theories develop when

researchers tests a prediction over and over

purpose + procedure =?

quantitative theory

3 levels

1. micro

2. meso

3. macro

Micro

• provide explanations limited to

  • small slices of time

  • Space

  • numbers of people

Meso

• link micro and macro, are theories of 

  • Organizations

  • social movement

  • communities

Macro

•  explain larger aggregates, such as

  • Social institutions

  • Cultural systems

  • Whole societies

Variable

• a characteristic or attribute of an individual or an organization that researchers can measure or observe and varies among the individuals or organizations

  • Examples: age, gender, SES, racism, social control, political power, leadership

Independent v

• Influence outcomes in studies

• Are being manipulated om experiments

Dependent v

• DEPEND on independent variables

• Are outcomes influenced by independent variables

Predictor v

• Predict an outcome of interest in survey method studies

• Similar to independent variables, however researcher cannot systematically manipulate a predictor variable

• ex. high SAT score is predictor of passing board exam

Outcome v

• Outcomes or results of predictor variables in survey method studies

• Dependent on the predictor variable

• ex. passing board exam

Intervening/mediating v

• Stand between independent and dependent variables

• Transmit effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable

• ex. exercise → increased metabolism → weight loss

Moderating v

• Predictor variables that affect the direction and/or strength of the relationship between independent and dependent variables

• ex. coffee drinking → heart disease

  • smoking

    • people who drink coffee tend to smoke

    • smoking increases risk of heart disease

Confounding v

• A third variable that is both related to the independent variable and to the dependent variable

Hypothesis

a prediction about a specific event or relationship between variables

Scale of measurement

• the response options available to participants on instruments or collected by the researcher observing participants

• categorical

  • nominal

  • ordinal

• continuous

  • interval

  • ratio

Nominal

• use categories that a participant would check

  • Ex. level of education (high school, bachelors, masters)

Ordinal

• categories for the participant to check but provides categories in a rank order

  • Ex. has your advisor helped you select a major (not at all, somewhat, great extent)

Continuous example?

ex. a scale of strongly agree to strongly disagree

Interval

• has arbitrary 0

  • Ex. 0 degrees out

Ratio

•  has true 0

  • Ex. 0 lbs (no weight)

Causality

• we expect variable X to cause variable Y

Temporal order

• one variable precedes another in time

  • One variable affects or predicts another variable

Stating theories in quantitative research

• can be

  • series of hypotheses

  • if-then logic statements

  • visual models

Series of Hypotheses

• are interconnected ex.

  • The higher one’s rank, the greater one’s centrality

  • The greater one’s centrality, the greater one’s observability

  • The higher one’s rank, the greater one’s observability

If-then logic statements

•  explain why one would expect the independent variable to influence or cause the dependent variables

  • Ex. if you work overtime, you will be paid time and a half

Visual models

• translate variable into visual picture

  • Tips

    • Position dependent on the right, independent on the left

    • Use one-way arrows leading from each determining variable to each variable dependent on it

    • Indicate strength among variables with + and -

    • Use two-headed arrows to show unanalyzed relationships between variables not dependent upon other relationships in the model

Placement of Quantitative Theories

should be towards the beginning of the proposed study

Variables in Theory use in Qualitative Research

can be a broad, deductive explanation for behavior and attitudes and complete with variables, constructs, and hypotheses

Theoretical standpoint

• used to provide an overall orienting lens for the study questions about gender, class, and race

  • Guides researchers about important issues to examine

  • Indicates how researchers position themselves in the qualitative study

  • Suggesting recommendations for changes to improve lives and society

Types of Theoretical standpoints

• feminist

• racialized

• critical

• queer

• disability

Feminist

view women’s oppressive situations and the institutions framing those situations as problematic

Racialized

raise important questions about who controls knowledge production, particularly for people and communities of color

Critical

address empowering human beings to transcend the constraints placed on them by race, class, and gender

Queer

individual identity of lesbians, gays, bisexual people, straight people

Disability

addresses understanding this population’s sociocultural perspectives allowing them to take control over their lives rather than a biological understanding of disability

Theoretical endpoint

qualitative study ends with a theoretical model, a theory, or a conceptual model

Worldview

• relates to the beliefs and values of the researcher and how these inform a study

  • Operate at an abstract level and may or may not be explicitly stated

Theories

•  less abstract, are drawn from literature, and provide a guiding perspective for designing many research process aspects

  • Methodological approaches follow

Overall Connection

worldview (beliefs and values of researcher) ->

theoretical lens (feminism, racial) ->

methodological approach (ethnography, experiment, mixed methods) ->

methods of data collection (interviews, checklists, instruments)

Null Hypothesis

denies hypothesis

Rejecting null hypothesis -> accept hypothesis

Null hypothesis = Ho, Hypothesis = H