A Level Sociology - Research Methods

What is Primary Data?

Collected first hand by the researcher for a specific research purpose.

It is gathered directly through methods such as laboratory experiments, questionnaires, interviews and observations.

What are the strengths of Primary data?

+ Information is current, specific and directly related to the research objectives because researchers can control variables which increase the internal validity and therefore allow for stronger cause and effect conclusions.

+ Produces authentic data that has not been influenced or interpreted by other sociologists, as researchers have the power to decide their chosen topic of discussion. This increases objectivity limiting the risk of external sources of information that may bias findings.

What are the weaknesses of Primary data?

- Designing and conducting primary research is a time consuming process, where even analysing smaller samples can affect the generalisability of findings. This is because researchers conducting studies on specif topics may decide to gather a limited number of participants to save time, though this contributes to the lack of representativeness to wider populations.

- Nonetheless, qualitative primary data is prone to researcher bias, where personal views and expectations can distort the collection of data. This will reduce the reliability of the research, for instance a different researcher may interpret behavioural observations and come to a different conclusion.

What is Secondary data?

Refers to information that has already been collected by another researcher for a different purpose.

This can include published research studies, Government statistics and school records.

What are the strengths of Secondary data?

+ Provides a longitudinal perspective which allows sociologists to identify secular trends (long-term shifts). E.g by comparing Marriage and Divorce statistics over 50 years, sociologists can track the impact of the Divorce Reform act (1969). This is particularly valued by Positivists, who seek to uncover social facts and establish causal relationships between variables

+ Avoids ethical challenges such as psychological harm associated with primary research, for instance sensitive research like Durkheim’s suicide study.

What are the weaknesses of Secondary data?

- Fail to reflect current social conditions as it may be outdated, compromising relevancy of findings. E.g Using 2011 Census data to analyse modern family structures such as increase in cohabitation would produce invalid conclusions.

- Lack of control over data quality because the sociologist did not collect the data, they cannot verify how it was produced. This significantly impairs the reliability and validity of findings.

What is Quantitative data?

Refers to numerical values that are produced from research through analytical methods.

Includes Laboratory/filed experiments, structured interviews, questionnaires and official statistics.

Evaluate Quantitative data?

+ Favoured by positivists for producing reliable, numerical data to identify trends and cause-and-effect relationships.

+ Unlike qualitative data, there is a reduced risk to researcher bias, making this more objective.

- Lack Verstehen, as critiques by Interpretists, which fails to understand the subjective experience of an individual and their deeper menaings.

- Socially constructed, especially OS.

What is Qualitative data?

Descripted information, focusing on meaning and quality.

Gathered through unstructured interviews, case studies, participant observations and documents.

Evaluate Qualitative data

+ Preferred by interpretivists to understand verstehen, where they produce rich, in depth data that captures concepts, opinions, emotions, and lived experiences to explain the "why" and "how" behind behaviours.

+ Allows researchers to adapt questions and focus on particular topics, providing more authentic and accurate accounts.

- Criticised by positivits for lacking reliability and producing inconsistent results.

- Highly subjective with researchers personal values and prejudices influencing findings, they may even use leading questions in interviews.

What is an Indepndent variable?

Variable that is changed

What is Dependent variable?

Variable that is measured.

What are extraneous variables?

Participant Variables are differences in characteristics such as age or gender that can affect findings.

Situational Variables are environmental factors like noise, temperature, or lighting that change the context of the study.

Researcher effects are characteristics or behaviours of the researcher such as gender that affect participant responses.

Demand Characteristics occur when participants figure out the aim of the study and change their behaviour to meet the researcher’s expectations.

What is a Laboratory experiment?

Conducted in a highly controlled environment where the IV is manipulated by the researcher to observe it’s effects on the DV.

Often a quantitative primary method.

How practical are laboratory experiments?

+ Highly efficient as they can be conducted quickly in a controlled setting. E.g Milgram’s study of obedience in 1963.

+ Allow researchers to control variables precisely, making it easier to establish cause and effect relationships. This contributes to statistical analysis and identification of trends, when in the form of quantitative measurements.

- Impractical to understand complex social interactions such as domestic abuse or suicide in a laboratory. This is because there will be difficulties with getting large samples of subcultures or schools into a small laboratory.

- This limited scope will affect the resources required if experiments are not publically funded, meaning individual researchers have to provide their own specialist equipment to study niche topics.

How ethical are laboratory experiments?

+ Debriefing participants is essential where any deception is justified, disclosed and explained.

+ Often obtain informed consent from ppts, to take part in any research, which is almost always required for experiments that are financed by the Gov’t or organisations.

- Deception may be breached, though necessary to understand the true nature of sociological topics, where it is the only way.

How reliable are laboratory experiments?

+ Highly reliable due to standardised procedures where researchers are in control of variables helps strengthen replicability of a study by other researchers. This allows them to successfully repeat conditions and verify conclusions.

+ This increases consistency of findings, showing that lab experiments are accurate.

- Nonetheless, human response and behaviour is complex and differs across culture, family structures and lifestyle patterns. Thus, cannot always be replicated with such ease.

How valid are laboratory experiments?

+ High level of internal validity, as the researcher has control over all variables, minimising risk from those that are confounding, ensuring that the independent variable truly influences the dependent variable.

- Lack of ecological validity because the artificial environment does not reflect how ppts would behave in a natural setting such as at school or home. The lack of mundane realism suggests lab experiments are not an effective measure of behaviour in the real world.

How representative are laboratory experiments?

+ Research is often conducted on a small scale, meaning the limited samples lack generalisability, especially if they are not public funded. This indicates that findings of an experiment are not an accurate representation to certain groups of people in society. E.g studies focus on females, or mothers

How theoretical are laboratory experiments?

+ Favoured by positivists for their strong scientific nature that produces objective quantitative data.

- Criticised by interpretists for failing to capture verstehen, to understand the subjective experience of an individual and their deeper meanings. They argue experiments are reductionist.

What are field experiments?

Take place in natural, real world settings such as an office or classroom, allowing the researcher to manipulate an IV to observe it’s effects on the DV.

They can colect both quantitative and qualitative data.

E.g Rosenhan’s Sain in Insance places study

E.g Rosenthal and Jacobson Pygmalion in classroom study

E.g Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiement

E.g Sherif’s Robber’s Cave study

How practical are field experiments?

+ As they are conducted in a natural setting, it makes it easier for researcher’s to design out the setting, saving time over altering the environment of a laboratory for instance. E.g R&J simply had to get permission in a school, without worrying about finding a laboratory, obtaining fiances and portraying a classroom, it was simply nautural.

- However, this could work against other researchers, making it harder for practical applications in special and unique settings such as different variables encountered. E.g Field experiment conducted in a failing school in a deprived area cannot be easily replicated in an elite private school to verify findings.

How ethical are field experiments?

+ Covert studies often means it is impossible to gather informed consent from ppts, which severely breaches ethical guidelines. E.g Sherif’s Robber’s cave. Though supporters argue this is necessary to understand behaviour.

For instance, Covert field experiments in schools require careful ethical consideration to avoid harming children.

How reliable are field experiments?

+ Highly reliable when standardised procedures are used, where such control ensures each ppt has the same experience and allowing consistent findings.

- In terms of field experiments, the ability to effectively maintain reliability in research is limited, because if the uncontrolled, real world setting.

How valid are field experiments?

+ There is a high level of ecological validity, in comparison to laboratory experiments because of the natural social context, which can ensure authentic human behaviour. This reduces the risk of the Hawthorn effect, where ppts act in a socially desirable manner, ultimately skewing findings.

- Nonetheless, a major theoretical limitation, particularly from a positivist perspective, is that the researcher cannot fully control the environment, leading to a lack of internal validity. This includes influence from uncontrolled extraneous variables, making cause and effect harder to establish.

E.g R&J While they manipulated teacher expectations (IV), they could not control other factors influencing student achievement (DV), such as the teachers’ own biases, different teaching styles, or the home life of the pupils.

How representative are field experiments?

- Research is often conducted on a small scale, meaning the limited samples lack generalisability, especially if they are not public funded. This indicates that findings of an experiment are not an accurate representation to certain groups of people in society. E.g studies focus on females, or mothers.

How theoretical are field experiments?

+ More favourable by Interpretivists than lab experiments because real-world context allows understanding of meaning and social interaction.

+ Can be used by Marxists to observe inequalities in real world settings such as workplace discrimination.

What are structured interviews?

Involves an interviewer reading out a set of pre-determined questions to an interviewee.

It follows a formal structure, making them less conversational, and responses are close ended.

How practical are structured interviews?

+ High response rates in comparison to questionnaires, as the participant is physically present for the interviewer to clear any misunderstandings.

+ Practical for large scale research, especially studying patterns like educational achievement.

- Time consuming and costly, as researchers have to not only find adequate interviewers with expertise, but also they have to read out loud questions, writing down responses, unlike questionnaires which are automatically sent out.

How ethical are structured interviews?

+ Informed consent can be obtained from ppts with ease and their right to withdraw from an interview at any point in time, makes this method more ethical.

- Sensitive topics such as domestic abuse can cause discomfort from some.

- The risk to act in a socially desirable way, where answers are edited to fit social standards can severely skew research findings.

How reliable are structured interviews?

+ Highly reliable as questions are standardised, meaning the high control ensures every ppt has the same experience. This contributes to the replication by other researchers, allowing for consistent findings.

- Interviewer effects such as age, gender or ethnicity can distort how ppts respond to questions. E.g Female victims of rape are unlikely to confide in male interviewers, which shows the importance of external sources

How valid are structured interviews?

+ The presence of an interviewer allows clarification of confusing questions, improving response validity.

- Nonetheless, the pre set nature of the questions can make it harder for ppts to reflect tehir full experiences and uncover authentic meanings (verstehen) behind certain issues. This lack of depth conyributes to the reduction in validity.

How representative are structured interviews?

+ High response rates can increase population validity, allowing a diverse range of sociological topics to be discussed, influencing policy change and society’s attitudes to particular social issues.

- There will be a lack of generalisability in data findings if the methodology is flawed such as limited samples of certain groups.

How theoretical are structured interviews?

+ Strongly supported by positivists for their ability to produce quantitative data that allows for statistical analysis. The objective nature can successfully seek patterns and trends over time. E.g Young and Wimott (1962) Angela McRobbie/ Anne Oakley

What are semi structured interviews?

Combine a set of pre-determined open questions with the flexibility for the researcher to ask follow-up questions and explore new, unexpected topics.

Makes them sound and feel less artificial than structured interviews.

E.g Dobash and Dobash Violence against wives

E.g Anne Oakley the sociology of housework

How practical are semi structured interviews?

+ They are more flexible than structured interviews, allowing for in-depth, nuanced data, especially when researching sensitive topics.

- However, they are time consuming to conduct, making it a longer process to analyse when conversations go off topic.

- High level of training is required to avoid interviewer bias and ensure a good rapport is developed, which can be expensive.

How ethical are semi structured interviews?

+ It is generally easier to obtain informed consent, as the researcher can explain the topics beforehand, meaning that the flexibility can give free choice of discussion making the ppt more comfortable.

- Though, sensitive, open-ended questions may cause psychological harm or distress, if researchers are not careful with wording especially for vulnerable groups.

- Also they are not anonymous.

How reliable are semi structured interviews?

+ The use of an interview guide (a list of topics) ensures a moderate level of consistency across participants.

- However, the lack of standardised procedures with freedom of discussion can make it harder for researchers to replicate the interview.

How valid are semi structured interviews?

How representative are semi structured interviews?

- Due to the time consuming nature, researchers will often opt for a small sample size, which compromises representativeness to wider population.

How theoretical are semi structured interviews?

+ Interpretivists favour semi-structured interviews as they provide rich, qualitative data, aiming for Verstehen (empathy/understanding) by allowing participants to explain their views in their own words.

- Positivists criticise them for lacking reliability and being difficult to replicate. However, they may appreciate that they are less time-consuming than completely unstructured, free-ranging conversations.

What are unstructured interviews?

Free-flowing, conversational style with little to no pre-set questions.

How practical are unstructured interviews?

+ They are more flexible than structured interviews, allowing for in-depth, nuanced data, especially when researching sensitive topics when answers can be clarified.

- High level of training is required to avoid interviewer bias and ensure a good rapport is developed, which can be expensive.

How ethical are unstructured interviews?

+ Effective for sensitive topics (e.g., crime, domestic abuse) as the informal nature allows for rapport, empathy, and a "safer" environment.

- The intimate nature may cause distress when discussing traumatic events, thus breaching ethical guideline of protection from harm.

How reliable are unstructured interviews?

+ Interviewer bias where personal opinions may consciously or unconsciously influence the interviewee.

- The flexible nature means there is a lack of standardised procedures in how questions are asked, which can severely impair replicability for other researchers.

How valid are unstructured interviews?

+ The in depth qualitative nature allows an establishment of verstehen where researchers can understand the true meanings of social issues.

+ The ability to ask follow-up questions and probe ensures that the respondent’s true perspective is captured.

How represenative are unstructured interviews?

- Due to the time consuming nature, researchers will often opt for a small sample size, which compromises representativeness to wider population.

How theoretical are unstructured interviews?

+ Interpretivists favour semi-structured interviews as they provide rich, qualitative data, aiming for Verstehen (empathy/understanding) by allowing participants to explain their views in their own words.

+ Feminists argue it is a non-exploitative, empathetic method that gives a voice to women's experiences.

- Positivists criticise the lack of reliability, low representativeness, and inability to quantify data or identify cause-and-effect relationships.

What are ethical issues?

A dilema about right or wrong.

Ethics are standards of conduct used to protect ppts wellbeing.

What is Infomed consent?

Receieving agreement from ppts to take part in any research, consent should be obtained before the experiment begins.

What is Deception?

Witholding information from ppts; specifically hidings the true aims of the research.

What is Debrefing?

Revealing any aims after the study has happened. Any deception is diclosed, justified and explained.

What is confidentiality?

protecting the ppts personal information.

Invasion of privacy can result in distress.

What is protection from harm?

Ppts must not be harmed physically, mentally or psychologically.

What is Right to withdraw?

Ppts have the right to leave the experiment at any time they wish, they should be told this at the start of the research.

What is Socially sensitive research?

Sieber and Stanley (1988) describe studies where there are potential social consequences for the participants or the group of people represented by the research.

Identified four aspects in the scientific research process that raise ethical implications in socially sensitive research:

The research question

The methodology used

The institutional context

The interpretation and application of findings

What is Validity?

Validity refers to whether a study accurately measures what it claims to measure. It concerns the truthfulness, authenticity and credibility of findings.

Ecological - realistic tasks natural in real world

+ Favoured by interpretivists for the rich detailed data that uncovers verstehen.

- Criticised by positivists for subjectivity.

What is Reliability?

Refers to whether standardised procedures were used, to ensure consistent findings, where replication is possible by other researchers.

Inter rater -

+ Positivists prioritise reliability to make sociology scientific.
- Interpretivists argue reliability fails to capture verstehen.

What is theoretical prefernce?

Refers to how a sociologist’s perspective influences their choice of method.

A researcher's choice of topic is heavily influenced by their perspective on society (consensus vs. conflict) and their view of sociology as a science (positivism vs. interpretivism).

Factors influencing the choice of sociological research topics

E.g Positivists like Durkheim and Comte believe sociology should model itself on natural sciences, aiming for objective, "value-free" research to discover "social facts". They prefer quantitative methods (surveys, statistics) to find cause-and-effect relationships.

E.g Interpretists like Weber focus on individual meaning, aiming for Verstehen and prefer qualitative data.

E.g Structural theories like Functionalism and Marxism focus on how society shapes individual behaviour, Marx wants to expose the false consciousness of the proletariat for a revolution to combat inequality, while Durkheim values social solidarity.

Gouldner argues that value free sociology is both impossible and undesirable, arguing that choices of topic are influence by paymasters

What is methodological preference?

Refers to what specific method researchers prefer from experiments, interviews, observations and questionnaires.

No single favourite as it is often dependent on topic, many sociologists now favour methodological pluralism (triangulation) to combine strengths and reduce weaknesses

How do sociologists apply research findings?

To Inform social policy, Improve institutions and reduce inequality.

What is Sampling?

Refers to the process of selecting a subset of individuals from a target population in order to generalise findings

Sociologists construct a sampling frame and choose a sampling strategy appropriate to their research aims, theoretical perspective, and practical constraints.

Probability - gives each member of the population a known chance of selection, preferred by positivists. E.g R, S, S

Non Probability - Often used by interpretivists, prioritising access and depth over representativeness. O, S, Q

What is Random sampling?

A sample of ppts produced using a technique that ensures every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected.

E.g Pulling names out of a hat, or using an online generator

Evaluate Random sampling

+ High levels of generaliability because everyone is equally considered to be a ppt, thus findings are representative against the wider diverse population.

+ For this reason, the risk of researcher bias is reduced as personal biases in what ppts are chosen are impossible.

- Ppts selected randomly may refuse to take part, causing low response rates that can severely undermine the representativeness and generalisability of the findings.

- Time consuming process to gather members of the target population; especially when conducting large scale research that will require a bigger sample.

What is Stratified sampling?

A sample of ppts produced by dividing the target population into sub groups (strata) to determine how many people are needed from each group proportionatly.

E.g When studying achievement, a researcher may ensure 50% male and 50% female participants to reflect school demographics.

Evaluate Stratified sampling

+ one of the most representative sampling methods available, ensuring that even small subgroups are included in the sample. Therefore, findings are generaliseable to a wider population.

+ By dividing the population into relevant categories, it avoids the risk of sampling bias of excluding certain groups.

- It requires a detailed, up-to-date sampling frame that includes the characteristics needed for stratification, which can be time consuming and costly.

- Researchers must have competence and have expertise of the population characteristics to create the strata.

What is Systematic sampling?

a probability sampling technique where a researcher selects every nth person from a smapling frame.

e.g studying victims of crime, a researcher might select every 10th household from a local council tax register to ensure an equal spread.

Evaluate Systematic sampling

+ quick, easy, and cost-effective compared to complex methods like stratified sampling.

+ reduces researcher bias because once the interval () is set, the researcher has no control over who is selected.

- It cannot be used if a complete, up-to-date list of the population does not exist.

- If the sampling frame has a hidden pattern, the sample can become highly unrepresentative. E.g if every 10th house on a street is a corner house, the sample may only include one type of housing.

What is Opportunity sampling?

A sample of ppts are produced by selecting people who are easily available and nearest at the time.

E.g Friends or by passers

Evaluate Opportunity sampling

+ Most convenient sampling method as it requires little time and cost to prepare and get hold of sample.

+ Can be used when a researcher does not have a sampling frame, in comparison to systematic sampling.

- Highly unrepresentative due to ppts being drawn from a specific location at a specific time. e.g Monday morning likely to find parents on the school run or early shoppers.

- Researcher bias as the selection of ppts is based on unconscious opinions of who they are likely to find and ask to take part

What is Snowball sampling?

Where existing participants refer the researcher to other potential participants within their network, building a sample through chain-referral.

E.g Laurie Taylor (1984) used snowball sampling to investigate the lifestyle of criminals in "In the Underworld," starting with one criminal contact to reach others.

Evaluate Snowball sampling

+ enables researchers to locate groups that are hidden from authority, stigmatized, or otherwise inaccessible.

+ Participants are referred by a peer, which establishes a rapport and increases the likelihood of participation, leading to more valid, in-depth, and honest data.

- However, the sample is not random as ppts tend to refer people who are similar to themselves, leading to a lack of diversity and a "closed" network. In this case findings cannot generalise to wider population.

- When participants provide names of others, it can ethical concerns about breaching confidentiality and informed consent.

What is Quota sampling?

Where the researcher finds a pre-set number (quota) of people with specific, relevant characteristics.

E.g A researcher studying student attitudes to school might set a quota to interview 20 students from each year group to ensure they have an equal spread of opinions from different ages, even if the total student body is not perfectly equal.

+ quick, cost efficient and time effective, making it ideal for large-scale social surveys or market research with limited budgets.

+ does not require a complete list of the population, which is beneficial when such a list is unavailable.

- Lack of reliability due to the limited scientific procedures, amking it harder for other researchers to replicate a study with this method and ensure consistency.

- As the researcher chooses who to approach, they may unconsciously select people who appear "safe" or friendly, leading to a biased sample.

What are Questionnaires?

A form of collecting data where a set of questions are given to ppts to fill out.

Typically collects quantitaive data through close ended questions, but can gather qualitative data through open ended questions.

What are Open ended questions?

Allows respondents to answer in any way they like, encouraging full and meaningful responses using their own knowledge and feelings.

E.g A study on labelling in education might ask to describe how teachers treat high achieving students.

E.g Paul Willis Learning to Labour study gathered pupils’ views about school.

How Practical and ethical are Open ended questions?

+ Gather rick qualitative data that can uncover verstehen which is especially apprecaited by interpretists.

- Researchers will face difficulty when analysing and comparing answers due to the in depth nature, which contributes to a time consuming process.

+ Allow for anonymity. This encourages higher levels of honesty and disclosure while keeping the identity of the participant protected.

- As ppts are encouraged to talk freely about their experiences, they may unintentioanlly bring forward sensitive topics such as abuse, that can raise ethical concerns such as psychological harm and distress.

How reliable and valid are Open ended questions?

+ Questions can be administered in the same order to every participant, such consistency allows for a baseline level of reliability.

- Nonetheless, the detailed, subjective, and personal nature of the answers, makes it difficult for another researcher to replicate the study exactly.

+ The absence of an interviewer reduces social desirability bias, leading to more honest, valid answers on sensitive topics.

- The qualitative data produced is difficult to analyze and categorize. This will increase the risk of researchers imposing their own subjective opinions and bias when interpreting the responses, reducing validity.

How representative and theoretical are Open ended questions?

+ Used in smaller, in-depth, qualitative studies (e.g in-depth interviews) can be highly representative of a specific, targeted, or hard-to-reach group.

- They take more time and effort to complete, which can lead to lower response rates. Such attrition means the sample may not be representative, reducing the ability to make generalizable, conclusions agaisnt the wider population.

+ Interpretists

- Positivists

What are Closed ended questions?

Provide fixed answer categories such as yes/no that are pre coded and easy quantifiable.

E.g a questionnaire on educational achievement may ask how many hours per week do you revise, 0-2, 2-4, 4-6, 6+

E.g British Social Attitudes Survey (BSA) measures attitudes to crime, welfare and education.

How Practical and ethical are Closed ended questions?

+ Time efficient and cost effective, compared to OEQ as they mainly gather quantitative data.

- They are not suitable for all populations, such as those with poor literacy skills, or children, as they require the ability to read and understand pre-coded choice.

+ Respondents are not under pressure to answer, and because the questions are clear and limited, and ensures informed consent.

- Interpretivists argue that closed questions force respondents into pre-set categories that may not reflect their true feelings or experiences. This is ethically questionable as it distorts the respondent's voice and imposes the researcher's framework upon them.

How Reliable and Valid are Closed ended questions?

+ Highly standardized nature ensures every respondent answers the exact same questions in the same format. Therefore, helping other researchers to replicate and verify findings.

- Respondents may feel forced to pick a "socially acceptable" answer rather than their true opinion, leading to unreliable data that reflects social norms rather than reality.

+ The researcher remains detached and does not influence the answers, ensuring the data is not biased by personal moral, instead entirely objective.

- An imposition problem can mean that the data lacks Verstehen. This is because researchers impose their own framework on respondents by deciding the set category of an answer that does not reflect a respondent’s true opinion.

How representative and theoretical are Closed ended questions?

+ Because closed-ended questionnaires are quick to complete and easy to process, researchers can distribute them to a large, geographically dispersed population. Therefore a larger sample is likely to reflect the characteristics of the wider research population, increasing generalisability.

+ Positivists

- Interpretists

What are Online and Mailed questions?

Online are distributed via email or online platforms such as google forms, while mailed are sent via post to respondents, completed privately, and returned.

Evaluate Online and Mailed questions

Online are highly practical being cost-effective, which allows a rapid distribution to large samples, increasing generalisability to wider populations. E.g large-scale studies such as the CSEW conducted by the ONS increasingly incorporate digital data collection to improve speed and coverage. Online formats may also enhance validity on sensitive topics due to perceived anonymity, reducing social desirability bias and conforming to ethical guidelines. However, they suffer from the digital divide, meaning older, lower-income, or less technologically literate groups may be underrepresented, reducing representativeness.

Mailed similarly benefit from standardisation and absence of interviewer effects, supporting reliability and reducing interviewer bias. Though they typically experience very low response rates, creating non-response bias and undermining representativeness. Furthermore, there is also no opportunity to clarify misunderstandings, potentially reducing response validity.

From a theoretical perspective, both methods align with positivism due to their emphasis on quantifiable, standardised data, but interpretists emphaise the lack of verstehen.

What are Practical issues?

Real-world constraints and resources that influence how sociologists design and conduct research, giving an indicator of what methods are more feasible than others.

Include time, access, funding, opportunity to research a topic, and the researcher’s personal characteristics.

Why do sociologists need to consider the Time required to conduct and analyse research?

It is important to consider how time might affect research because different methods will vary in the amount of time needed to conduct and analyse data.

For instance, quantitative methods such as structured questionnaires and experiments generally produce large datasets quickly and are easier to analyse using statistical techniques. However, qualitative methods like participant observations and unstructured interviews often present significant practical challenges, requiring a lengthy process and in depth, skilled interpretation.

E.g Ethnographic studies like Laud Humphrey’s on “Tearoom Trade” involved extensive time observing and interviewing participants.

Why do sociologists need to consider money and funding in research?

The cost of research varies widely depending on the methods used.

Expenses may include research equipment, travel to experiment setting and training specialist researchers to help out or analyse findings.

Experiments often require specialised equipment and controlled environments, making them expensive, while online questionnaires can be distributed cheaply to thousands of participants.

Large national surveys funded by organisations such as the Office for National Statistics illustrate how substantial funding enables extensive sociological research.

E.g In contrast, smaller-scale studies, such as Ann Oakley’s research on housework, rely on fewer participants and less funding, making them more cost-effective.

Why do sociologists need to consider personal characteristics in research?

A major consideration that sociologists need is perosnal characteristics of the research such as their age, gender or ethnicity and it’s impact on reserach.

For instance, a male researcher studying female domestic violence survivors may struggle to build rapport, as participants might feel uncomfortable sharing their experiences.

Additionally, the personal class of a researcher can affect how accurate findings are, for example Paul Willis’ study of working-class boys in Learning to Labour highlighted how a middle-class researcher could face challenges understanding working-class culture. This means that researchers may unconsciously input their own biases and values into methods, in this case their own standards of educational achievement based off of personal experiences,

Why do sociologists need to consider access in research?

When selecting methodology, it is important that researchers consider how access to ppts or materials can make it impractical to enter certain settings and interact with ppts.

For instance, studying sensitive topics such as criminal activity or deviance may require gaining trust within a group, though could have negative consequences like a researcher going native.

E.g Sudhir Venkatesh, in Gang Leader for a Day, gained access to gang members by embedding himself in their community, years later he admitted his "detached and objective" stance began to feel false.

What are Observations?

Qualitative research method where the sociologist systematically watches, records, and analyses social behaviour in its natural setting.

What is an Overt Participant Observation?

Occurs when the researcher actively participates in the group being studied while openly revealing their identity and research purpose.

E.g E.g Sudhir Venkatesh, in Gang Leader for a Day interacted with members over years, gaining deep insights into their criminal activity.

How Practical are Overt Participant Observations?

+ Produces rich qualitative data, often favoured by Interpretists, as researchers are with the group studied 24/7 and can understand complex behavioural dynamics from a first hand perspective.

+ Allows the development of rapport and allows ppts to eventually trust the researcher and act naturally. This contributes to an increase in validity as ppts are less likely to change their behaviour to fit certain expectations, this is known as demand characteristics.

- However, when conducting such observations it can be a time consuming process, especially for longitudinal studies, thus making it harder to establish trends over a long period of time.

How Ethical are Overt Participant Observations?

+ Considered one of the most ethical observational methods because it upoholds the guideline of informed consent. This is because the open nature, with the researcher being open about their identity and purpose, ensures ppts have the choice to decline or agree with taking part in a study.

- Nonetheless, because ppts are aware that they are being watched and analysed, there is the risk of hawthorne effect, changes in behaviour to appear more favourable and portrayed in a certain light can severely impact the validity of findings. (High EV)

How theoretical are Overt Participant Observations?

+ Interpretivists favour overt participant observation for achieving Verstehen, the ability to gain empathy and deep understanding, because researchers can first hand experience raw and authentic moments that are not possible with other methods like a non participant observation.

- Positivists criticise this method for lacking objectivity because there is a risk of researcher’s going native, as seen in Sudhir Venkatesh, in Gang Leader for a Day study, where he admitted his "detached and objective" stance began to feel false. Therefore, findings are likely to be based on a biased interpretation of events.

- Lack of reliability

What are Covert Participant Observations?

Occurs when the researcher participates in the group being studied while concealing their identity and purpose.

E.g Humphreys’ Tearoom Trade study of where he covertly observed interactions to study anonymous sexual encounters in public toilets.

E.g Paul Willis Learning to Labour

How Practical are Covert Participant Observations?

+ Method is especially useful for studying sensitive topics such as criminal activity or deviance may be the only way to gain access and deeper understanding into group dynamics.

- However, when conducting such observations it can be a time consuming process, where once a researcher has gained trust after so many years, the safety risks and various dangers may outweigh the benefits of studying this topic

How Ethical are Covert Participant Observations?

- Severely breaches ethical guideline of deception put in place so that ppts are aware of what they are getting themselves into and can give informed consent. Though, supporters would argue that if the benefits of the research outweigh the costs taken to become part of a group it will allow a deeper understanding into complex topics. Furthermore, researchers can use a process of debriefing ppts so that any deception is disclosed, explained and justified.

- No RTW, and confidentiality.

How Theoretical are Covert Participant Observations?

+ Interpretivists favour Covert participant observation for achieving Verstehen, the ability to gain empathy and deep understanding, because researchers can first hand experience raw and authentic moments that are not possible with other methods like a non participant observation.

- Positivists criticise this method for the lack of scientific structure and standardisation in procedures, which can ultimately impact objectivity of any findings. This is because other researchers will not be able to replicate the study and follow the same conditions, which reduces inter-rater reliability