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Industrial Revolution

Period of rapid mechanized manufacturing beginning in the late 1700s.

industrialization

Process of developing industries and manufacturing in a country.

colonialism

Control of territory by another country for economic or political gain.

Imperialism

Policy of extending power through conquest, trade, or political control.

primary

Economic sector that extracts raw materials.

secondary

Economic sector that manufactures goods.

tertiary

Economic sector providing services.

quaternary

Economic sector focused on information and knowledge.

quinary

Highest-level decision-making sector.

least cost theory

Weber's theory that firms choose locations minimizing transport, labor, and agglomeration costs.

core

Wealthy dominant regions in world-systems theory.

semi-periphery

Regions between core and periphery.

Periphery

Poorer regions dependent on core countries.

gross domestic product

Total value of goods and services produced within a country.

gross national product

Value of goods and services produced by a nation's people and firms.

gross national income per capita

Average national income per person.

formal economy

Legal, regulated economic activity taxed by government.

informal economy

Unregulated economic activity not officially recorded.

income distribution

How income is spread among people.

gender inequality

Unequal treatment or opportunities by gender.

Gender Inequality Index

Measure of gender disparities in health, empowerment, and labor.

empowerment measures

Indicators of participation and decision-making power.

labor-market participation

Share of working-age people employed or seeking work.

Human Development Index

Composite measure of life expectancy, education, and income.

microlending

Small loans given to low-income borrowers.

Rostow's Stages of Economic Growth

Model describing development through five stages.

Wallerstein's World System Theory

Theory dividing world into core, semi-periphery, and periphery.

dependency theory

Idea that poorer countries remain dependent on richer countries.

commodity dependence

Reliance on a few raw material exports.

complementarity advantage

Places trade because each has what the other needs.

comparative advantage

Ability to produce a good at lower opportunity cost.

free trade agreements

Treaties reducing trade barriers between countries.

European Union EU

Political and economic union of European countries.

World Trade Organization WTO

Organization regulating global trade rules.

Mercosur

South American trade bloc.

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries OPEC

Group of oil-exporting nations coordinating production.

globalization

Increasing worldwide connections of trade, culture, and technology.

tariff

Tax on imported goods.

global financial crises

Worldwide economic downturns affecting many countries.

international lending agencies

Organizations that loan money to countries.

newly industrialized countries

Countries recently shifted toward manufacturing growth.

special economic zones

Areas with special rules to attract business.

free trade zones

Areas where goods can be imported/exported with few barriers.

export processing zones

Industrial areas focused on making exports.

international division of labor

Different countries specialize in different production tasks.

post-Fordism

Flexible production with customization and smaller batches.

multiplier effect

New spending creates additional economic activity.

economies of scale

Lower average costs from producing more.

agglomeration

Clustering of businesses for mutual benefit.

just-in-time delivery

Receiving inputs only when needed.

service sector

Part of economy providing services.

high-technology industry

Industry based on advanced research and innovation.

growth pole

Place where economic growth spreads outward.

sustainable development

Meeting present needs without harming future generations.

mass consumption

Economy focused on widespread consumer buying.

climate change

Long-term shifts in climate patterns, largely from greenhouse gases.

ecotourism

Tourism focused on nature conservation and local benefits.

Sustainable Development Goals

UN goals for global well-being and sustainability.

site

The physical characteristics of a place including terrain, climate, and resources

situation

The relative location of a place including connections and accessibility

urbanization

The process by which more people move to cities

megacities

Cities with over 10 million people

metacities

Cities with over 20 million people

periphery

Less developed countries with low income and industrialization

semi-periphery

Moderately developed countries between core and periphery

suburbanization

Movement of people from cities to suburbs

urban sprawl

Uncontrolled expansion of urban areas

urban decentralization

Movement of people and businesses away from city centers

edge city

A concentration of business and retail outside downtown

exurb

Area beyond suburbs often rural but connected to city

boomburb

A rapidly growing suburb that becomes large

world city

A city that has major influence on the global economy

urban hierarchy

Ranking of cities by size and influence

globalization

Increasing connections between places worldwide

rank-size rule

A pattern where city size is inversely proportional to its rank

primate city

A city that is much larger than others in a country

gravity model

A model predicting interaction based on size and distance

central place theory

A theory explaining distribution of services based on population

Burgess concentric zone model

A city model with rings expanding from the CBD

Hoyt sector model

A city model with sectors extending from the center

Harris and Ullman multiple nuclei model

A model with multiple centers of activity

galactic city model

A city model with edge cities and highways

bid-rent theory

Land value decreases with distance from the city center

Latin American city model

A city model with a wealthy center and poorer outskirts

Southeast Asian city model

A city model with a port focus and mixed land use

African city model

A city model influenced by colonial and traditional patterns

infill

Building on empty land within a city

infrastructure

Basic physical systems of a city

sustainable design

Design that minimizes environmental impact

mixed land use

Combining residential, commercial, and industrial uses

urban walkability

How easy it is to walk in a city

transportation-oriented development

Development focused around public transit

smart growth policies

Planning that limits sprawl and promotes sustainability

New Urbanism

A design movement promoting walkable communities