Mid-sem exam

BOMDAS/BODMAS

Order of operations: Brackets → Orders → Multiply/Divide → Add/Subtract.

Squaring

This operation removes the sign of a number, e.g., (-3)^2 = 9.

Mean Formula

The mean is calculated as X̅ = ∑X / N.

Ubiquity of Statistics

Statistics are critical across fields like clinical practice, HR, marketing, and sports psychology to assess evidence.

Mathematics Anxiety

Feeling of anxiety around mathematics; statistics often uses basic math; software can assist with complex calculations.

Peer-Review Process

Manuscript undergoes review by anonymous expert reviewers prior to publication.

Sources of Knowledge

Knowledge can come from personal experience, authority, reason, or empiricism.

Scientific Method

A systematic process combining rationalism and empiricism.

Key Goals of Science

Describe, explain, predict, and control behavior.

Scientific Theory

A coherent set of statements summarizing existing facts with explanatory mechanisms.

Falsifiability

A hypothesis must be able to be disproven.

Hypothesis

A precise, testable prediction derived from a theory.

Empiricism and Objectivity

Knowledge based on measurable and replicable observations.

Skepticism and Critical Doubt

Searching for alternative explanations and testing claims.

Openness in Science

Full disclosure and willingness to replicate findings.

Tentativeness

Willingness to revise or discard theories when new evidence arises.

Independence from Authority

Decisions based on data and evidence rather than prestige.

Lifecycle of a Study

A sequence including theory, hypothesis, study design, data collection, analysis, interpretation, and reporting.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable that is manipulated in an experiment.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable that is measured and presumed to be affected by the IV.

Operational Definitions

Specific criteria for how variables are measured to avoid ambiguity.

Random Assignment

Participants have an equal chance of being placed in any group to balance confounds.

Control Groups

A group that experiences everything but the critical manipulation to isolate the effect of the IV.

Quasi-Experimental Designs

Used when random assignment is not ethical or feasible.

Correlation Does Not Imply Causation

Observation of relationships does not mean one variable causes changes in another.

Confounding Variable

A variable that varies systematically with the IV and threatens causal interpretation.

Extraneous Variable

A variable not controlled in the study that may introduce noise.

Random Variability

Inherent differences among individual scores that can obscure effects.

Causal Inference

Determining whether observed effects are due to the IV rather than confounding factors.

Operational Definitions Example

Memory is defined as the ability to recall a list of words after 3 minutes.

Converging Operations

Using multiple operational definitions to reach the same conclusion about a construct.

Measurement Error

Inaccuracies in how outcomes are measured that add noise.

Reliability in Measurement

Consistency of a measure across different occasions or raters.

Validity in Measurement

The extent to which a measure actually assesses what it is intended to.

Type of Research

Can be classified as basic (knowledge-driven) or applied (problem-solving).

Null Hypothesis (H0)

States there is no relationship between the IV and DV.

Alternative Hypothesis (H1)

States there is a relationship between the IV and DV.

Inferential Statistics

Techniques that allow for conclusions about populations based on sample data.

Descriptive Statistics

Summarizes data in a meaningful way, e.g., via tables and graphs.

Pilot Testing

Initial testing of experimental design to refine and optimize measures.

Range of Measurement

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a dataset.

Standard Deviation

A measure of the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values.

Type I Error

Rejecting the null hypothesis when it is actually true.

Type II Error

Failing to reject the null hypothesis when it is actually false.

Cumulative Frequency

The sum of the frequencies for all scores up to and including a specified point.

Percentiles

Values below which a certain percentage of observations fall.

Data Cleaning

The process of detecting and correcting corrupt or inaccurate records from a dataset.

Descriptive Statistics Example

Using a frequency table to summarize data from a sample.

Histograms

Graphical representation of the distribution of numerical data.

Frequency Polygons

Line graphs representing the frequencies for continuous data.

Skewness

A measure of the asymmetry of the distribution of values.

Kurtosis

A measure of the tails' heaviness of a distribution.

Normal Distribution

A type of continuous probability distribution for a real-valued random variable.

Statistical Power

The probability that a statistical test will correctly reject a false null hypothesis.

Ethics in Research

Guidelines ensuring moral treatment of research participants.

Informed Consent

Participants are made aware of the nature of the research and consent to participate.

Deception in Research

Misleading participants regarding the true purpose of the study for ethical reasons.

Confidentiality

Protection of private participant information in research contexts.

Data Reporting

The process of sharing research findings with the broader community.

Qualitative Research

Research focusing on non-numeric data and interpretations.

Quantitative Research

Research analyzing numeric data using statistical tools.

Random Sampling

Choosing a sample in such a way that every individual has an equal chance of being selected.

Inferential Statistics Examples

T-tests, ANOVAs, regression analyses used to make inferences about the data.

Sample Size (n)

The number of observations or participants included in a study.

Population Size (N)

The total number of individuals or cases that fit a given definition.

Research Report Components

Include introduction, methods, results, and discussion sections.

Statistical Significance

A determination that results are not likely due to chance.

Bibliography

A list of the works cited or consulted in preparing a scholarly paper.

Sampling Error

The error caused by observing a sample instead of the whole population.

Box-and-Whisker Plots

A graphical representation of data showing the distribution's range, median, and quartiles.

Outliers

Data points that differ significantly from other observations.

Robustness of a Test

The ability of a statistical test to provide valid results under a variety of conditions.

Factorial Design

An experimental design where factors are analyzed together and interactively.

Experimental Control

The methods used to reduce the impact of extraneous variables.

Research Ethics Boards (REBs)

Committees that review research proposals to ensure ethical standards.

Case Study Method

An in-depth analysis of a single instance or event.

Content Analysis

Research method used to analyze textual information.

Thematic Analysis

Qualitative method for identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns within data.

Meta-Analysis

Combining results from multiple studies to identify overall trends.

Longitudinal Study

Research that follows the same subjects over a period to observe changes.

Cross-Sectional Study

Research analyzing data from a population at a specific point in time.

Ethical Review Process

A procedure to ensure research adheres to ethical standards.